Transcript Slide 1
Nigeria
Multiple regimes throughout its history
North & West – well-developed large states and hereditary
monarchies
Hausa in west organized into powerful trading city-states
South – small, communal kinship-based rule
British colonialism led to indirect rule, with chiefs leading on behalf of
British government. (Authoritarian rule under British direction)
Post-independence = Military Authoritarianism
Government structure formally federalist & democratic, but
does not generally operate as such
British controlled economy led to current state controlled
economy
Nigeria has currently turned to supranationals (IMF & World
Bank) to save economy
Factionalism led to creation of many political parties
Failure to create coherent party system
Parties formed and faded around personalities
Multi-party system reinforced and strengthened ethnic and religious
cleavages
Independent National Election Committee (INEC) – registered a
number of parties following the death of Abacha in 1998
In order to run candidates for the legislative and presidential
elections of 1999, a party had to qualify by receiving at least 5% of
the votes in two-thirds of the states in the 1998 election
This cut the number of parties significantly, only 5 parties were
eligible to run candidates in the 2003 election
People’s Democratic Party (PDP)
Well-established Party
Began running candidates in 1998
Party of President Olesugun Obesanjo (Igbo, Christian from the North)
Obasanjo received 62% of vote in 2003 election
PDP gained majority in National Assembly and most of the governors throughout
the country
Do to voter fraud, difficult to determine accurate level of support for the PDP
All Nigeria People’s Party (ANPP)
General Muhammadu Buhari, Muslim from the North, ran against Obesanjo
Received about 32% of the vote
His running mate and potential future candidate was Chuba Okadigbo, an Igbo
from the Southeast
Other parties that ran presidential candidates include All Progressive Grand
Alliance (APGA), The Movement for Democracy and Justice (MDJ), and the
Justice Party
Alliance for Democracy (AD) did not have a presidential candidate in 2003, but
did receive 9% of the votes for the legislative elections
Citizens vote for candidates on 3 levels: local, state, and national.
National level citizens vote for the president, representatives to
the National Assembly, and senators from their states.
National Elections
Presidential Elections
After annulled election of 1993, first election took place in
1999, with another in 2003.
If presidential candidate does not receive outright majority,
a second ballot election takes place.
President must receive at least 25% of the votes in 2/3 of
the states
A purely regional candidate can not win
Requirement reflects difficulty experienced in attempt to
unify Nigeria
Legislative Elections
Senate has 109 senators, 3 from each of the 36 states,
and one from federal capital territory of Abuja
Elected by direct popular vote
360 representatives of National Assembly (formerly the
House of Representatives)
Elected from single member districts by plurality
vote
Regional representation dominates in both houses.
Wide-array of ethnic coalitions in legislature
Legislative authority is weak in Nigeria
Currently 3 consecutive elections have been held without
annulment or delay
Public protest and several deaths have accompanied the last
few elections, but none were as bad as many predicted they
would be
Several politicians were assassinated, including Marshall
Harry, a leader of the ANPP
• Independent National Electoral Commission (INEC)
Attempted to cleanse electoral process, declared six
million names to be fraudulent during 2003 elections
International teams concluded elections were corrupt
Voting boxes were stolen, vandalized, and stuffed with
fraudulent votes
Voting patterns in the south in particular were
suspicious
Have actually played an important role in Nigerian politics
A large number of civil society organizations often
cooperate with political parties
Religious interest groups important in Nigeria
Christian Association of Nigeria protested when
General Babangida changed Nigeria’s status in the
Organization of Islamic Conference from observer to
member
Muslim civil society organizations in the north work to
support the shari’a court system
Citizens have worked around military authoritarianism to
have an impact on political life through labor unions,
student groups, and populist groups.
Labor Unions
Independent and politically influential prior to 1980s
Through the introduction of corporatism the Babangida regime limited the
influence of labor unions
A central labor organization supplanted the older unions, and only
candidates approved by Babangida could be chosen as labor leaders
In July 2003 labor unions widely and openly protested the government’s
attempt to raise oil prices for Nigerian consumers
Business Interests
Business interests have tended to work in collaboration with the military
regimes, in return for the spoils related to the corruption of the elite class
Associations for manufacturers, butchers, and car rental firms have
operated outside the realm of government and helped promote economic
reforms of the 1990s
Human Rights Groups
Promote democratic reforms
Include university students, teachers, civil liberties organizations, and
professional groups (doctors, lawyers)
These groups protested against the abuses of Babangida and Abacha
Kaduna Mafia
• Loosely organized group of military officers
and civilians who support Babangida; also
supported Obasanjo
National Democratic Coalition (NADECO)
• Based in southwest; supported Abiola’s
presidential campaign
Nigeria has well-developed, independent press
General Abacha attempted to curb criticism of his regime
by closing several newspapers and magazines in Nigeria in
1994
Press reflects ethnic divisions in the country
Outspoken and critical newspapers mainly in the south
Radio is the main source of information for most Nigerians
All 36 states have their own radio stations
Nigeria is a federal political system (in theory)
Three branches of government (Legislative, Executive,
Judicial)
Executive has been most dominant traditionally
Each of the 36 states and 774 local governments has an
executive, legislative, and judicial branch
2nd, 3rd, & 4th Republics (all since 1979) had presidential
system, with a strong executive theoretically checked by
bicameral legislature and independent judiciary
Currently neither federalism or checks & balances operate,
and state & local governments are completely dependent on
the central government
1979, 2nd Republic, presidential system replaced parliamentary
system based on British model
Multiple ethnic groups fragmented the multi-party system
and the legislature and prevented a prime minister from
gaining the necessary authority to rule
Belief was that a president could symbolize national unity and
rise above weak party system
U.S. presidential model with two-term limits
Appoints a Cabinet (approved by Senate); veto legislation,
which can be overridden
1983, Major-General Muhammadu Buhari initiated palace
coup, set precedent for military coups and military rule
Buhari ousted by Gen. Babangida in 1985
Gen. Abacha replaces Babangida in 1993
Civilian rule returned in 1999, President Obasanjo
Military Rule
• 7 military rulers have all
ruled differently
• All promised transition to
democracy
Only Obasanjo in 1979 and
General Abubakar in 1999
delivered democratic
transition
• Generals Buhari (1983-85),
Babangida (1985-93), and
Abacha (1993-98) used
repression and violence
• All military & civilian regimes
concentrated power in hands
of the executive
Patrimonialism
• Generals/Presidents head
of patron-client system
• Dispense government jobs
and resources as rewards
to political supporters
• Cabinet positions &
bureaucratic chiefs part
of president’s patronage
system
• Patrimonialism in
Nigeria is unstable which
has led to recurring coups
British installed elaborate civil service system during
colonial period
Nigerians were allowed to fill lower-level jobs within
bureaucracy
Civil service sector continued to grow after independence
Current bureaucracy is bloated, corrupt, and inefficient.
Bribery is common.
Jobs in civil service are often awarded through the patronclient system, Prebendalism.
Parastatals
• Most government agencies
are parastatals, or
corporations owned by the
state. (Similar to Mexico)
• Provide commercial and
social welfare services
• Board members are
appointed by government
ministers, and corporate
executives are part of the
president’s patronage system
• Parastatals provide public
utilities such as water,
electricity, public
transportation, and
agricultural subsidies
• Control major industries
such as steel, defense
industry, and petroleum
State Corporatism
• Corporatism – authoritarian
political system that allows for
political input from selected
interest groups outside the
government structure
• In Nigeria, this input is
provided by parastatals,
because they are controlled by
the government it is referred
to as State Corporatism
• Parastatals insure that the
state controls private interest
as well as fulfills social &
economic functions
• Parastatals serve as contact
point between government &
business interests, but state
ultimately controls these
interactions (Corrupt & inept)
A parliamentary system until 1979
Replaced by a bicameral legislature
Nigerian legislature under military governments have had
no power, under civilian government they have been unable
to check power of the president
Legislature is a follower in the political process instead of a
leader
Corruption scandals – in 1999 president of the Senate and
speaker of the lower house were removed for perjury and
forgery. In 2000 the Senate president was removed for
accepting kickbacks for a government contract
Senate
109 Senators
3 from each of the 36
states
1 from Abuja district
Directly elected by
popular vote
Senators are ethnically
and religiously diverse
Only 4 of 109 Senators
were women as of 2003
elections
Approves high level
presidential
appointments
National Assembly
Formerly called House of
Representatives
360 member
representatives
Single-member districts,
elected by plurality vote
Only 23 of the 360
representatives are
women (2003)
Early years of after independence judiciary had great deal of
autonomy
Autonomy stripped by military decrees that nullified court
decisions and setup quasi-judicial tribunals outside regular system
Judicial review was suspended
Presidential cronies appointed as justices
Today judiciary is responsible for interpreting laws in accordance
with the Constitution, so judicial review exist in theory
Court structure at state & federal level, highest court is the
Supreme Court
Shari’a courts exist in parallel existence with courts developed on
British model
Cases:
In 1993, Mshood Abiolao, winner of annulled 1993 election
was detained and died in custody. Presiding judges changed
often and critics attacked the military cronyism of the judicial
system
In 1995, activist Ken Saro-Wiwa, and 8 other activists were
detained and executed under court orders arranged by the
military and presided over by military officers
•
Military
• Northeners dominate officer corps and are well-
educated, having attended Sandhurst military academy
•
Traditional leaders of the various states
• Positions are hereditary; they are well-educated and
cosmopolitan
•
•
Well-educated professionals that make up civil
service
Nigerian Youth Service Corps (NYSC)
• University and graduate school students perform a year
of service outside their state (usually in rural areas)
•
Successful business is also a path to elite status
Strong, policy-making force in Nigeria
“Military in Government” – those that initiate coups and take
over the responsibility of the executive branch
“Military in Barracks” – fulfills traditional duties of military, its
leaders have been critical of military control of political power.
Military has been subject to internal discord, military presidents
often have to keep a close eye on other military leaders.
Babangida protected his authority by constantly moving
military personnel around and appointed senior officers
through his patronage system
Military is one of the few institutions that is truly national in
character.
Military has restored and maintained order during ethnic strife
and conflict
Top-down policy-making process.
Power concentrated in hands of the president & cabinet ministers
through channels established by patron clientelism
Loyalty Pyramid – senior officials supported by broader base of
loyal junior officials
State control of resources means that those in the pyramid get the
spoils, they alone have access to wealth and influence. Loyal
clients of patronage structured pyramids includes:
“Kaduna Mafia”, “Babangida’s Boys”, and “Abacha’s Boys”
Military controls pyramids, pyramids supported by “guns” (Force);
therefore, protesting system can be dangerous
Top-down, self-interested rule established by British during
colonial era when the British relied on native chiefs to ensure
Nigerian trade and resources benefited Great Britain
Loyalty pyramids and corruption have led to a squandering
of Nigeria’s wealth
Nigeria is currently in debt and majority of the population
lives in poverty
Large oil revenues have been pocketed by government
officials
Economic situation complicated by ethnic & regional
conflict
In February 2001, federal government asked the Supreme
Court to all the government to collect oil revenue and put it
in a “federal account” (Revenue Sharing)
Areas in the south along Niger River Delta protested
this idea, they believed the policy was a way for
northerners to take profits and revenue away from the
south
Oil
Oil wealth during the 1970s
gave Nigeria international
leverage
OPEC member
Conflicts in Middle East
have made Nigeria more
important as a trade
partner for other countries
since 1970s
Lack of economic
diversification hurts Nigeria
when oil prices drop
DEBT – as a result of drop
in oil prices and lack of
revenue surplus
Structural Adjustment
1980s, Nigeria seeks
assistance from international
organizations to deal with
debt crisis
World Bank & IMF
involvement
Restructure &
diversification of Nigerian
economy
Privatize parastatals
Cut government spending
“Shock Treatment” not very
successful
Parastatals still under
government control
Debt repayment had to be
restructured
Federalism seen as a positive characteristic for Nigerian political
structure
Federalism promises power-sharing
Allows citizens more contact points with government
“Federal Character”
Recognition of all ethnic, religious, & regional groups
Nigerian Constitutional Provisions
Senators represent diverse states
Representatives elected from diverse districts
President must receive 25% of the votes in 2/3 of the
districts
Negatives of Federalism
Federalism bloats bureaucracy
Promotes corruption within bureaucracy
Jobs created to satisfy demands of various ethnic groups
Legislative branch suffers from gridlock
Competition over government resources
Southerners argue that federalism will only exist when
central government devolves some authority to the state &
local governments
Nigerians of the Niger Delta believe they should control
their own resources
Redistribution of the region’s oil wealth should be
prohibited
Southerners suggest that police duties should also be
the responsibility of local and state governments
This “True Federalism Movement” not supported by
Northerners
North has few resources and very little revenue to share
Northerners benefit more from redistribution of wealth
programs
President Obasanjo had promised to create
more states (36 currently)
• Defuse ethnic-based political conflict (Federalist 10)
More state governments, however, cost
money (which they don’t have)
Current federalism creates a lot of
competition of money from government
leading to a system called “chop-chop”
politics or “log rolling” and “pork barrel”
politics in the US
Economic Reforms of the late 1990s
Further privatization of state-owned industry
Limitations on economic controls of the central government
Money taken by General Abacha returned by foreign banks
and placed in the state treasury
Scheme for alleviating poverty in Nigeria
Increase in public wages
Hope of decreasing instances of corruption
Increase in financial reserves as a result of stabilized oil
prices