It is our memories that give us context and change our purposes…..

~ Mohinder Suresh

Key Topics • The intellectual and social background of the Enlightenment • The philosophes of the Enlightenment & their agenda of intellectual and political reform • Efforts of “enlightened” monarchs in Central & Eastern Europe to increase the economic & military strength of their domains • The partition of Poland by Prussia, Russia, & Austria

Economic change & political reform….

• Possible AND desirable • New idea? Not for us– but 1700???

–RADICAL

Movement of people & ideas

ENLIGHTENMENT

Think of possibilities…not just actualities.

Philosophes

: A bunch of guys sitting around in some woman’s living room, chatting & discussing current events —asking themselves: “What’s wrong with our society?” “How can we fix it?” Can I have another cigar and brandy?

Apply rules of reason to nearly all the major institutions & social practices….

• Voltaire • Diderot • Rousseau • Gibbon • Lessing • Montesquieu • D’Alembert • Hume • Smith • Kant

Not an organized group Disagreed on many issues Family-like dynamics —do all family members agree?

CHIEF BOND: Common desire to reform thought, society, & government for the sake of HUMAN LIBERTY In touch with everyday life/common people

Influences….

1.

Isaac Newton —Newtonian Worldview

2.

John Locke

3.

Great Britain —post-1688

4.

France & Louis XIV

5.

Print Culture —reading is a GOOD thing!!

Isaac Newton Law of universal gravitation

Principia Mathematica

Study nature directly Avoid metaphysical/supernaturalism If nature was rational, society could also be organized rationally…

John Locke An Essay in Human Understanding

Tabula rasa

Experience

only

shapes character Human nature is changeable Human nature can be molded by changing environment  change environment!

Great Britain —post-1688 • Enlightened reforms benefit all • Religious toleration (Voltaire) • Relative free speech/press • Limited monarchy • Parliament—political sovereignty • Courts protected citizens • Small army • Domestic economy—less regulated

Great Britain —post-1688 Liberal policies: Prosperity/stability/loyalty

Britain=significantly freer than ANY European nation

France & Louis XIV • Absolute monarchy • Large standing army • Heavy taxation • Religious persecution (Protestants/Jansenists) • Restrictions on free speech/press (censorship)

Print Culture… • Journals • Books • Newspapers • Pamphlets • Printed word  communication chief vehicle for – Ideas/opinion/thought –

NEVER UNDERESTIMATE THE POWER OF THE PEN OR THOSE WHO BUY INK BY THE BARREL

…Print culture… Who are the readers?

Monarchs Nobles Upper middle classes – bourgeoisie Professional groups 

public opinion

(Rousseau)

• “Opinion, queen of the world, is in no [way] subject to the power of kings; they themselves are her first slaves.” ~Rousseau The Social Contract

• “Therefore it is all in vain; neither reason, nor virtue, nor laws will prevail over the public opinion, so long as there is no contrivance to change it. Once more I say it, force will not do so.” ~Rousseau The Social Contract

…Print Culture… • Governmental reaction: – Censorship – Book trade regulated – Confiscation – Book burning – Imprisonment •

FEAR of print culture’s political POWER

•

The Encyclopedia

—Diderot et.al.

The Enlightenment & Religion

The Enlightenment & Religion • “

Crush the Infamous Thing

”— Voltaire • What is this

THING

?

“Churches hindered the pursuit of a rational life and the scientific study of humanity and nature”

Deism • God is a watchmaker • • God who created nature must be rational  God-worship must be rational • God exists – through empirical study of nature – life after death

• Tolerant • Empirical • Reasonable • Capable of encouraging virtuous living • Where have we heard this before?

Deism

• Toleration must be #1 • “…life on Earth and human relationships should not be subordinated to religion.” • KOT • However—at the same time • John Wesley & Methodism – Not break away from Anglican Church – Urge spiritual enthusiasm – Important revival of Christianity • More on this later (Romanticism)

Methodism proved that the need for spiritual experience had not been expunged by the 18 th -Century search for REASON….

• ~Spielvogel

“If there were just one religion in England, despotism would threaten, if there were two religions, they would cut each other’s throats, but there are thirty religions, and they live together peacefully and happily.” ~Voltaire Philosophic Letters on the English, 1733

The Enlightenment & Society

The Enlightenment & Society • • Criminal Law—Beccaria

On Crimes and Punishments

• • What is the purpose of laws?

Positive

law (monarchs & legislatures) must conform with

rational

laws of nature • Attacked torture & capital punishment • Speedy trial & certain punishment • Punishment as deterrent

Beccaria • Purpose of laws?

• “…not to impose the will of God…[but to] secure the greatest good or happiness for the

greatest

of human beings.” (KOT italics added ) • Utilitarianism (we’ll talk about this later)

Physiocrats

•

Philosophe

economists • Primary purpose of government is to protect property and to permit its owners to use it freely • All economic production depended on what?

(agriculture)

Adam Smith… Wealth of Nations --1776 1. FREE TRADE – fundamental economic principal • • Condemned mercantilist use of protective tariffs to protect home industries “a tailor does not make his own shoes; a cobbler does not make his own coat…”

If a country can supply another country with a product cheaper than the latter can make it, it is better to purchase it than to produce it.

~Spielvogel

…Adam Smith… 2. Labor theory of value What is something truly worth?

LABOR is the TRUE wealth of a nation

Not specie Not dirt (agriculture)

…Adam Smith…

3. LAISSEZ-FAIRE

Government has

3

purposes

ONLY a. Protect society from invasion b. Defend individuals from injustice & oppression (police) c. Public works (roads/canals/bridges)

…Adam Smith… • Government should not interfere in economic matters • Government-- “passive policemen” stays out of lives of individuals • Later basis for 19 th century economic liberalism

…Adam Smith • 4-stage theory • Study economics to determine one’s place in society •

COMMERCIALISM

is highest –Rationale for economic/imperial domination of “lower” stages

Philosophes

& Political Thought

Baron de Montesquieu •

The Persian Letters

– satire –2 guys visiting Europe –Criticism & exposition of the cruelty & irrationality of much contemporaneous European life.

Montesquieu •

Spirit of the Laws

– British model is wisest of all –Importance of checks & balances created by means of separation of powers • Sound familiar?

Montesquieu • Political Science • (empirical method) • No single set of law/methods for all

3

basic types of government

Montesquieu • REPUBLICS –Small states –Based on citizen involvement

Montesquieu • Monarchy –Middle-sized states –Grounded in the ruling class’ adherence to law

Montesquieu • Despotism –Large empires –Dependent on FEAR to inspire obedience

Montesquieu • Misread / misinterpreted • Defend French aristocracy’s political privileges • American

philosophes

• Franklin // Jefferson // Adams // etc

Jean-Jacques Rousseau • “much of world’s evil is caused by uneven distribution of wealth” • Discourse of the Origin of Inequality, 1755

“In monarchies, never can private wealth raise a man above the prince; but in a republic it may easily set him above the law. Then the government has no longer any weight, and the rich man is the real sovereign.

~Rousseau The Social Contract

Rousseau • “process of civilization and enlightenment had corrupted human nature” • Moral Effects of the Arts and Sciences, 1750

“I do not like verbal explanations. Young people pay little heed to them, nor do they remember them. Things! Things! I cannot repeat it too often. We lay too much stress upon words; we teachers babble and our scholars follow our example. Our real teachers are experience and emotion, and man will never learn what befits a man except under its own conditions. ~Rousseau Emile

Rousseau • “family squabble” • Life would improve if people could enjoy more of the fruits of the Earth or could produce more goods.

• Raised the more fundamental question of what constitutes the “good life”

“The threads of our experiences weave the tapestry of our lives….” Jean-Luc Picard