Transcript Organizational Performance Dimensions

Using and Interpreting StressScan
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Definition of Stress
“It seems wise to use “stress” as a
generic term for the whole area of
problems that includes the stimuli
producing stress reactions, the reactions
themselves and the various intervening
processes. It defines a large, complex,
amorphous, interdisciplinary area of
interest and study.” (Lazarus, 1966)
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What Are Your Major Work and Life
Stressors?
WORK
OTHER
HEALTH
FINANCIAL
FAMILY
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Stress Response
Sympathetic Nervous System (SNS)
 Epinephrine (Ep also known as adrenaline) an
norepinephrine (NEp) activate/arouse us during stress
 Immediate response to stressor (within seconds)
Hypothalamic Pituitary-Adrenal Axis (HPA)
 Releases stored energy (glucose/fatty acids) to deal with
emergencies via glucocorticoids (e.g., cortisol)
 Slower onset following stressor (within minutes)
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Stress Response Pattern
Alarm
“Fight or Flight” activation of the
autonomic nervous system (e.g., heart
rate, blood pressure, cortisol, etc.)
Resistance
Immune suppression reaction, release
of endorphins and growth hormone
Exhaustion
Exhaustion phase contributing towards
stress related illness and exacerbation
of medical conditions
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Stress Response Pattern
Stage 1
Alarm
Stage 2
Resistance
Stage 3
Exhaustion
Response to
stressful event
Normal level
of resistance
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Stress Response
“Tend-and-Befriend Model”
 A team of researchers headed by Shelley Taylor, a psychologist
at the University of California, Los Angeles, reviewed over 1,000
human and animal stress response studies
 Men and women also react with a “tend-and-befriend” approach
in the face of work and life stress
 Females respond to stressful situations by protecting themselves
and their young through nurturing behaviors--the "tend" part of
the model--and forming alliances with a larger social group,
particularly among women--the "befriend" part of the model
 Males, in contrast, show less of a tendency toward tending and
befriending, sticking more to the fight-or-flight response
Taylor, Shelley (2002). The Tending Instinct: Women, Men and the Biology of Nurturing. New
York: Times Books
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Stress and Health: Important Points
 Sickness and disease are not the same
 Stressors do not make you sick
 Stressors make you more likely to get
diseases that make you sick
 Chronic stress exacerbates pre-existing
conditions, rather than, causing disease
directly
 There exists substantial individual variability in
response to disease
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The Mind-Body Connection: Chronic Stress
Problems Associated with Chronic Stress
 Cardiovascular (e.g., arteriosclerosis)
 Digestion (e.g., ulcers, decreased nutrient
absorption)
 Bone (e.g., osteoporosis, stunted growth)
 Glucose (e.g., late onset diabetes)
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The Mind-Body Connection I
Immunocompetence
 Acute (e.g., final exams, sleep deprivation)
and chronic (e.g., bereavement, marital
conflict, care giving) stressors are significantly
associated with immunosuppression in over
30 years of research
 Negative appraisal, realistic acceptance,
suppression of negative/trauma related
thoughts and pessimism appear to directly
contribute adversely to immune function
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The Mind-Body Connection II
Repressive Coping
Definition of Repressive Coping:
Repressive coping is a personality trait
characterized by low self-reports of
anxiety in stressful situations and high
scores on defensiveness and social
desirability
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The Mind-Body Connection II:
Repressive Coping and Health
Overall, the evidence suggests a signifcant
association between repressive coping and
immunosuppression, cardiovascular reactivity and
elevated blood pressure
Schwartz, G. (1990). The psychobiology of repression and health. In J. Singer (Ed.), Repression and
dissociation (pp. 405-434). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Jorgensen, R., et. al.(1996). Elevated Blood Pressure and Personality: A Meta-Analytic Review.
Psychological Bulletin, 120(2), 293-315
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The Mind-Body Connection II:
Repressive Coping and Cancer
 A recent meta-analysis examined the relationship
between psychosocial factors and breast cancer
 Average effect sizes were calculated from 46 studies
for 8 major categories
 The average woman in the breast cancer group
generally used a repressive coping style to a greater
extent than did 65% of the women in the control group
McKenna, Molly C.; Zevon, Michael A.; Corn, Barbara; Rounds, James
(1999). Psychosocial factors and the development of breast cancer: A metaanalysis. Health Psychology. Volume 18(5) 520-531
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The Mind-Body Connection II:
Repression and Social Support
 Individuals high in defensiveness reported
significantly higher social support compared to
others
 Some limited evidence of a “super repressor”
were observed in this study (high
defensiveness, low anxiety, high optimism)
Nowack, K.M. (2001). Repressive coping and social support: In search of
a “super” repressor. Unpublished manuscript.
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How is repressive
coping related to
emotional
intelligence?
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Repressive Coping and Emotional Intelligence
 Self-manager differences in performance
ratings were studied in relation to the ratee’s
personality scores for 204 managers
 Inflated self ratings (relative to those of his/her
manager) were significantly associated with
higher achievement, high social confidence,
high social desirability and low anxiety
Goffin & Anderson (2002). Differences in self-and superior rating of
performance: Personality provides clues. Paper published at the Society of
Industrial and Organizational Psychology. Toronto, Canada
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Repressive Coping and Emotional Intelligence
 84 students predicted how their best friends
would respond to various inconsiderate
behaviors on their part compared to their
friends reactions
 Repressor’s predictions were significantly less
negative than their friends and, unlike
nonrepressors, showed no association with
their friends responses (i.e., low social
awareness about their inconsiderate behaviors)
McKinney & Newman (2002). Anticipating responses to one’s own misdeeds:
Repressive coping and the prediction of other’s reactions to inconsiderate
behavior. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 21, 427-437
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Who are the stress
resistant and hardy
employees?
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Stress Response Types
Hot Reactors 
get sick in the battle of
experiencing stress/change
Sustainers
 get sick after the battle of
experiencing stress/change
The Hardy
 experience work and life
stress/change without
getting sick
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Stress Response Type: Hot Reactors
Hot Reactors
 1 in every 5 people
 Blood pressure shoots up under pressure
 High in cynical mistrust, hostility and anger
 Untreated, hot reactors are subject to heart
disease, stroke and sudden cardiovascular
death
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Stress Response Type: Sustainers
Sustainers
 Experience illness or symptoms following
stressful events or after the stress is over -“Let Down Effect”
 Happens when shifting gears from a state of
high activation to one of low activation
 Is frequently experienced after a stressful
project is completed, on or after weekends,
holidays, vacations, or after retirement
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Stress Response Type: The Hardy
 Perceive less work/life stress
 Practice daily health habits
 Possess strong social support
 React less frequently with Type A
response to stress
 Possess a hardy outlook and optimistic
explanatory style of work and life events
 Utilize health enhancing coping
strategies and behaviors
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Determinants of Individual Health





Genetic
Social Circumstances
Environment
Medical Care
Behavior/Lifestyle
30%
15%
5%
10%
40%
McGinnis et al., 2001
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“Change before you
have to.”
Jack Welch
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Habits are Hard to Change
 NEW YEARS RESOLUTIONS: 25% abandon
new behaviors after 15 weeks; 60% make the
same resolution the next year
 WEIGHT LOSS: 95% of those who lose
weight regain it back within 2 years
 SMOKING: Only 13-14% are abstinent 6 to
12 months after quitting
 ALCOHOL: 90% of those treated have a
drink within 3 months; 50% return to predrinking levels within a year
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Necessary Ingredients for Changing Behavior
Nowack, K. and Heller, B. (2001). Making executive coaching work. Trainingmag.com
Awareness
Motivation
Emotional
Intelligence
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About StressScan
 StressScan quickly identifies individual characteristics
that protect against or contribute to stress related
illness
 This validated instrument based on over 15 years of
research measures 15 psychosocial risk factors
including perceived stress, lifestyle management
behaviors, social support, Type A behavior, cognitive
hardiness, coping style and psychological well being
 In addition, two validity scales measure inconsistent
responding and responding bias
 Norms are based on ethnically diverse sample of 1,111
men and women, ages 20 to 68 from diverse working
environments
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About StressScan Continued
 StressScan is available online or scored by hand in just
15 to 20 minutes
 The StressScan report summarizes important health
risk alerts and health resources for each individual
 StressScan has established reliability and validity
based on over 15 years of research
 StressScan is ideal for coaches who are dealing with
work pressure, stress and family balance issues
 StressScan makes an excellent health risk appraisal
within organizational settings (as part of executive
coaching, wellness, stress management and health
promotion programs)
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Stress Profile Summary Report Scales
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StressScan: Response Bias Index
The Response Bias Index is made up of 5
true-false items such as “ I have never lied in
my life.” A response in the scored direction for
any of these items suggests that the
respondent may be presenting him/herself in
an unusual light. The Response Bias Index is
the number of these items for which the scored
response has been given. Scores higher than 2
may suggest a careless or unusual response
bias to completing the StressScan
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Occupational Stress
 Measures of work and life stress are modestly associated with physical
illness, job burnout and psychological distress (average r’s range between .10
to .30)
 A 2004 survey by Consulting Tools USA revealed that 40% of all
employees report they “disagreed” or “strongly disagreed” with the
statement “the amount of pressure and stress on my job is reasonable
and rarely excessive”
 Reduction in perceived work and life stress have been found to be
associated with immune enhancement (Nowack, 1992)
 Individual stress-management interventions generally are effective in
reducing negative individual health outcomes, but do not consistently
affect outcomes such as absenteeism, turnover, accidents, health care
costs, productivity or job satisfaction unless additional organizational
interventions occur (Nowack, 2000)
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StressScan: Health Habits Scales
 Global Health Habits
 Exercise/Physical Activity
 Sleep/Rest
 Eating/Nutrition
 Prevention
 Substance Use (alcohol, smoking)
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“If I’d known I was gonna
live this long, I’d have
taken better care of
myself”
Eubie Blake at 100
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Health Habits: Exercise
 Physical activity affects many aspects of health including
protection against premature mortality, CHD, hypertension,
cancer, depression and anxiety
 Despite established benefits of regular exercise, more than
60% of adults in the US and UK are sedentary or
insufficiently active
 The US American College of Sports Medicine recommends
a level of physical activity of 30 minutes on 5 or more
days/week or intense activity of 30-60 minutes at least 3
days/week for protective health benefits
 Lack of exercise has been shown to be an independent risk
factor for heart disease (risk of inactivity ranges from 1.5 to
2.4, an increase in risk comparable with that observed for
high cholesterol, HBP or cigarette smoking)
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Health Habits: Sleep/Rest



Sleep is a 24-hour circadian rhythm
REM and NREM sleep
Sleep disorders:

Insomnia

Excessive daytime sleepiness (e.g., sleep apnea, narcolepsy)

Circadian rhythm disorders (e.g., delayed phase, shift work, jet lag)

There are many causes of sleep deprivation. Some include: 1) Not allowing
enough time for sleep; 2) sleep disorders; 3) excessive worry ; 4) depression;
repeated awakenings from noise; 5) shift work, working at night and travel
across time zones; 6) medications; and 7) medical illness causing pain, difficulty
in breathing, etc.

Even a small loss of sleep can decrease waking performance and alertness.
Research indicates that, for most people, one night with 2 hours less sleep than
is usually required is sufficient to affect subsequent waking performance and
alertness significantly

Popular sleep treatments that might be helpful for sleep problems (e.g.,
insomnia) include exercise, mental/physical relaxation, light therapy, melatonin,
valerian and new generation sleep aids
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Health Habits: Nutrition



Approximately 61% of American adults are overweight
Healthy eating and nutrition involves the following eight
components: 1) high monsaturated fats found in many
nuts and olive oils and low saturated fats found in most
meat/dairy products; 2) moderate alcohol consumption;
3) high consumption of vegetables; 4) high
consumption of cereals, grains and fiber; 5) high
consumption of fruits; 6) high consumption of legumes;
7) low consumption of meat; and 8) low consumption of
dairy products
From a long term health perspective, it appears more
important to increase the number of healthy foods
regularly consumed than to just reduce the number of
less healthy foods regularly consumed
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Health Habits: Preventive Practices
 The use of aspirin has been shown to
have a cardiovascular health benefit

Some recent studies suggest that
moderate use of alcohol several times a
week may have some limited protective
effects on the cardiovascular system

Lap/shoulder safety belts, when used,
reduced the risk of fatal injury to front-seat
passenger car occupants by 45 percent
and the risk of moderate-to-critical injury
by 50 percent
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Health Habits: Alcohol and Health
 Moderate alcohol consumption is associated
with cardiovascular health benefits
 The lowest mortality occurs in those who
consume one or two drinks per day
 Demonstrated reduction in current and future
coronary heart disease (CHD) with moderate
consumption of alcohol
 About 50% of the protective effect of alcohol is
mediated through increased levels of HDL
cholesterol
 Higher levels of alcohol consumption have been
conclusively linked to more serious illnesses,
accidents and adverse health outcomes
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Health Habits: Smoking
 Smoking in adults has declined in the US
from 53% in 1966 to 23% in 2001
 Cigarette smoking is a major risk factor for
CHD (30% of approximately 170,000 of all
coronary deaths are directly attributed to
smoking)
 Smokers risk of heart attack is twice that of
non-smokers
 Lower stress consistently contributes to one’s
ability to successfully maintain cessation in
both the short and long-term
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Social Support
 Cross sectional and prospective studies have consistently

shown that social support can significantly reduce the
severity of stress and psychological experience of it
Epidemiological research has established that low social
support is associated with both mortality and morbidity
 Types of social support
 Emotional
 Informational
 Instrumental
 Sources of social support, perceived availability, utility and
overall satisfaction are associated with health and well-being
in the face of work and life stressors
 Positive changes in social support have been found to
influence coping behaviors and immune function (Nowack,
1992)
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Social Support:
Age Standardized Death Rates per 10,000 Men, Ages 40-69
Nonsmokers
Smokers
796
1,560
Single
1,074
2,567
Widowed
1,396
2,570
Divorced
1,420
2,675
Married
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Type A Behavior
 Commonly associated with hard driving,
competitive, achievement striving,
impatient, hostile, energetic, fast paced and
time urgent behaviors

The toxic components of Type A Behavior
appear to be cynical mistrust and
antagonistic hostility
 Research shows a relationship between
reduction of Type A Behaviors and CHD
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Cognitive Hardiness
 View change as a challenge, rather than a threat
 Are committed, rather than alienated, with their activities a
work and home
 Possess a more internal, rather than external, locus of
control
 Possess an optimistic explanatory style by appraising bad
events as relatively external, unstable and specific
 Report greater self-esteem, self-efficacy and lower
neuroticism (core self-evaluations) associated with
increased job satisfaction and job performance
 Hardy individuals who experience stress report significantly
less illness, job burnout, and psychological distress
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Coping Style
Coping Styles
 Positive Appraisal
 Negative Appraisal
 Threat Minimization
 Problem-Focused Coping
In two separate longitudinal studies, high
scores on the Threat Minimization coping
style and exercise significantly predicted
lower levels of self-reported physical illness
and absenteeism (Nowack, 1994)
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Coping Style: Unwinding Stress
Perceived Stress
Outcomes
Thoughts
Behavior
Emotions
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Religion/Spirituality: Linkages to Health
 Religion is a very important part of the lives
of approximately 67% of the American
public
 96% of the American public believe in God
 42% attend religious services regularly
 Interest in spiritual growth is increasing
with 82% expressing such interest in 1998
compared to only 58% in 1994
Powell et al., 2003
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Religion/Spirituality: Strength of Evidence
Linking to Health
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Service attendance protects against death
Religion/spirituality protects against heart disease
Deeply religious people are protected against death
Religion/spirituality protects against disability
Religion/spirituality slows cancer
People who use religion to cope live longer
Religion/spirituality improves recovery from illness
Religion/spirituality impedes recovery from illness
Being prayed for improves physical recovery from
illness
Persuasive
Some
No
No
No
Inadequate
No
Some
Some
Powell et al., 2003, American Psychologist, 58, 36-52
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Approaches to Preventive
Stress Management
Modify the Stressor
Change Your Reaction to
the Stressor
Change Your Perception or
Belief About the Stressor
Practice Stress
Inoculation Behaviors
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Coping with Stress: Relaxation
Mental Relaxation




Meditation
Breathing
Exercises
Visualization
Self-Hypnosis
Physical Relaxation




Stretching
Progressive
Relaxation
Yoga
Massage
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Coping with Stress: Meditation
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Choose a quiet environment that is not too brightly lit. Allow
yourself 5 minutes at first and gradually work up to 20
minutes.
Sit upright with your spine erect….feet should be flat on the
ground with your hands resting in your lap. Close your eyes
and keep your body still.
Start with some deep breathing: inhale and exhale deeply,
letting all your breath out. Pause, then inhale letting the
breath flow naturally using your abdomen muscles.
Now allow your breathing to become natural and slow….as
you exhale count “one.” Continue counting, each time you
exhale. If thoughts enter your mind and your forget to count,
simply notice and dismiss the thoughts. Do the same with
sounds and bodily sensations—simply notice and dismiss
them.
If you wish to time yourself, use a non-ticking timer…When
you are done, rock, gently back and forth before slowly getting
up. Practice at least once daily.
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Coping with Stress: Visualization
Create Your Daydream
Picture a scene in which you are perfectly relaxed…..
Perhaps you are lying at the beach on a warm breezy
day….Continue to visualize this scene, noticing the
warmth of the sun on your body, feeling more relaxed,
while your breathing becomes slow and rhythmic.
You feel the warmth of the sun on your arms, legs, and
face….how it totally relaxes and soothes all of your
muscles…you actually can feel beads of perspiration
form and your fingers and hands swell slightly as you
continue to slow down your breathing and feel relaxed
and calm…..Focus on the sounds of the waves
crashing at the beach and feel the slight breeze of the
wind on your face as you continue feeling calm,
comfortable and very relaxed…slowly open your
eyes….Practice this visualization when you
experience stress and anxiety.
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Causes of Work Stress
Organizational
Stressors
Task Demands
Physical Demands
Role Demands
• Quick decisions
• Temperature extremes
• Role ambiguity
Interpersonal
Demands
• Critical decisions
• Poorly designed office
• Role conflict
• Group pressures
• Incomplete informa-
• Threats to health
tion for decisions
• Leadership styles
• Conflicting
personalities
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Organizational Costs of Health Management

A 2001 Kaiser Family Foundation survey found employees
with single insurance coverage are now paying 27% more
on average than last year

The US Health Care Financing Administration forecasts for
2005 suggest a dollar increase of 57% from 2002 to 2005

Relatively progressive companies pay 80 times more in
diagnosis and treatment than for employee preventative
maintenance health programs

Solid evidence suggests that 50% to 70% of all diseases
are associated with modifiable health risks and potentially
preventable
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Preventive Stress and Health Management
 A recent review of over 13 studies indicates an
average benefit to cost ratio of $3.48 in reduced
health care costs and $5.82 in lower
absenteeism per dollar invested (Aldana, 2001)

Combined health enhancement programs
focusing on lifestyle management change have
been shown to yield a $3 to $6 return on
investment for each dollar invested in 2 to 5
years (Pelletier, 2001)
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Work/Family Balance
 More and more people in the
workforce are putting emphasis on
family as an important priority
 Over 70% of workers do not think
there is a healthy balance between
work and family
 Increasingly employees are exploring
new careers because of the inability
to manage work and family stressors
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Organizational Stressors: Leader Practices
 70% of employees’ perception of the
organizational climate is associated with
the emotional intelligence of the leader
(Goleman, 2002)
 Poorly managed workgroups are an
average of 51% less productive and
44% less profitable than well managed
groups
 80% of turnover is directly related to
unsatisfactory relationships with one’s
boss
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Consulting Tools 2004 Study: Leadership Matters
 Results of two company wide employee
engagement surveys were analyzed for all
corporate staff for a large food service corporation
for 2002 and 2004
 Employees rated leadership and management
practices using a benchmarked 8-item Leadership
Effectiveness Index (alpha .91)
 Employees were asked additional questions about
retention (intention to leave in 12 months), job
satisfaction and perceptions of stress
Nowack, K. (2005). Does Leadership Practices affect a Psychologically Healthy Workplace?
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L e a d e rs h ip E ffe c tiv e n e s s a n d C lima te (N =1 5 3 )
S ig n ific a n t D iffe re n c e s (a ll p 's < .0 1 )
3
2 .3 9
2 .4 8
J o b S tre s s
2 .0 7
2
R e te n tio n
S a tis fa c tio n
1 .7 8
1 .5 1
1 .2 5
1
H ig h
Low
E ffe c tiv e n e s s
E ffe c tiv e n e s s
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Unscheduled Absence 2005
 Companies with poor
morale have an
unscheduled absence rate
of 3.2% compared to 1.5%
for companies reporting
“good” or “very good”
morale
 Only 35% of unscheduled
absences are due to actual
illness
12%
Illness
35%
14%
Family Issues
Personal Needs
Entitlement
Mentality
Stress
18%
21%
 Estimates are that
employee absenteeism
costs about $660 per
employee
CCH Unscheduled Absence Study 2005
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Organizational Stressors: Team Practices
 Positive mood of the team leader
promotes worker productivity and
retention
 Team members tend to share
moods, whether positive or
negative, with more positive
moods associated with increased
performance
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Preventive Organizational Stress and
Health Management
Organizational Demands
and Stressors
 Physical Demands
Organizational Preventive
Stress Management
 Physical/Task Demands

 Task Demands

 Role Demands

 Interpersonal Demands

Job/task redesign
Participative management
Flexible work schedules
Design of physical settings
 Role/Interpersonal Demands






Selection/Promotion systems
Career/Talent management
Mentoring systems
Team building
Diversity workshops
Leadership development
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Selected References

Nowack, K. (2000). Occupational stress management: Effective or not? In P. Schnall, K. Belkie, P.
Landensbergis, & D. Baker (Eds.). Occupational Medicine: State of the Art Reviews, Hanley and Belfus,
Inc., Philadelphia, PA., Vol 15, No. 1, pp. 231-233.

Greene, R. and Nowack, K. (1996) Stress, hardiness and absenteeism: Results of a 3-year longitudinal
study. Work and Stress, 9, 448-462.

Nowack, K. M. (1994). Psychosocial predictors of health, job satisfaction and absenteeism: Results of
two prospective studies. Paper presented at the 1994 American Psychological Association National
Convention, Los Angeles, CA.

Nowack, K. and Pentkowski, A. (1994). Lifestyle habits, substance use, and predictors of job burnout.
Work and Stress, 8, 19-35.

Schwartz, G.E., Schwartz, J.I., Nowack, K.M., & Eichling, P.S. (1992). Changes in perceived stress and
social support over time are related to changes in immune function. University of Arizona and Canyon
Ranch. Unpublished manuscript.

Nowack, K. M. (1991). Psychosocial predictors of physical health status. Work and Stress, 5, 117-131.

Nowack, K. M. (1990). Initial development and validation of a stress and health risk factor instrument.
Journal of Health Promotion, 4, 173-180.

Nowack, K. M. (1989). Coping style, cognitive hardiness, & health status. Journal of Behavioral
Medicine, 12, 145-158.
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