Motivation

Motivation:

a need or desire that energizes behavior and directs it towards a goal.

For example, Aron Ralston found the motivation to cut off his own arm when trapped on a cliff in Utah in 2003. What motivated him to do this? Hunger? The drive to survive? The drive to reproduce?

Perspectives on Motivation

Hierarchy of Needs/Motives Instinct Theory



Evolutionary Perspective

There are different ways of thinking of the way motivation works, all of which relate to the “push” of biological processes and the “pull” of culture, social forces, and ideals.

Arousal [Optimization] Theory Drive Reduction Theory

Perspectives on Motivation

Five perspectives to explain motivation include the following: 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Instinct Theory Drive-Reduction Theory Incentive Theory Optimum Arousal Theory Hierarchy of Motives

Do Instincts Direct Human Behavior?

An

instinct

is a fixed (rigid and predictable) pattern of behavior that is not acquired by learning and is likely to be rooted in genes and the body.

Human “nesting” behavior Instinctual nesting

Instincts



Evolutionary Perspective

Other species have genetically programmed instincts “motivating” their actions.

Do humans?

 Human babies show certain reflexes, but in general, our behavior is less prescribed by genetics than other animals.  We may, however, have general patterns of behavior which can be explained as emerging through natural selection.

 Instinct theory has given way to evolutionary theory in explaining human behavior.

Drive-Reduction Theory

When the instinct theory of motivation failed it was replaced by the drive-reduction theory. A physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need (Hull, 1951).

Drive Reduction

The physiological aim of drive reduction is homeostasis ,

the maintenance of a steady internal state

(e.g., maintenance of steady body temperature).

Food Drive Reduction (Food Deprived) Organism

Homeostasis

-- tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state regulation of any aspect of body chemistry around a particular level

Incentive Theory

    Incentive  a positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behavior High Achievement Motivation  Will select moderate challenges or tasks Low Achievement Motivation  Will select very easy or very difficult tasks Overjustification Effect   Extrinsic rewards are unnecessary Loss of intrinsic motivation

Seeking Optimum Arousal

   Some behavior seems driven by a need to either increase or decrease our physiological arousal level. Curiosity, as with kids and these monkeys, may seek stimulation to reach an optimum arousal level. A hunger for stimulation, novelty, makes humans infovores, seekers of knowledge.

Performance and Arousal Level

What happen when we succeed at raising our arousal levels?

Below: the effect of arousal on performance depends on how comfortable we are with the task. Yerkes-Dodson Law: Arousal levels can help performance but too much arousal can interfere with performance.

For taking an exam, moderate arousal might be best.

Hierarchy of Needs

Abraham Maslow (1970) suggested that certain needs have priority over others. Physiological needs like breathing, thirst, and hunger come before psychological needs such as achievement, self esteem, and the need for recognition.

(1908-1970)

Hierarchy of Needs/Motives

Abraham Maslow proposed that humans strive to ensure that basic needs are satisfied; then, they find motivation to pursue goals that are higher on this hierarchy.

A closer look at one need/motive:

Hunger

Research on hunger is consistent with Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy:  In one study, men whose food intake had been cut in half became obsessed with food.

 Hunger even changes our motivations as we plan for the future.

Physiology of Hunger

  Experiments and other investigations show a complex relationship among the stomach, hormones, and different parts of the brain.

Feeling hungry can include stomach contractions; the feeling can happen even if the stomach is removed or filled with a balloon.

Stomachs Removed

Tsang (1938) removed rat stomachs, connected the esophagus to the small intestines, and the rats still felt hungry (and ate food).

The Hypothalamus and Hunger

Receptors in the digestive system monitor levels of glucose and send signals to the hypothalamus in the brain.

The hypothalamus then can send out appetite stimulating hormones to tell the body: time to eat!

    

Glucose: C

6

H

12

O

6

the form of sugar that circulates in the blood provides the major source of energy for body tissues when its level is low, we feel hunger The glucose level in blood is maintained. Insulin decreases glucose in the blood, making us feel hungry.

Insulin and Glucose are two substances in the blood that are critical in regulating hunger levels Glucose Molecule

Glucose & the Brain

Levels of glucose in the blood are monitored by receptors (neurons) in the stomach, liver, and intestines. They send signals to the hypothalamus brain.

in the Rat Hypothalamus

Hypothalamic Centers

The lateral hypothalamus (LH) brings on hunger (stimulation). Destroy the LH, and the animal has no interest in eating. The reduction of blood glucose stimulates

orexin

in the LH, which leads rats to eat ravenously.

Hypothalamic Centers

The ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH) depresses hunger (stimulation). Destroy the VMH, and the animal eats excessively.

The Body Talks Back to the Brain

The hypothalamus sends appetite-stimulating hormones, and later, after eating, sends appetite suppressing hormones. Hormones travel from various organs of the body back to the brain to convey messages that increase or decrease appetite.

Hypothalamus & Hormones

Hormone Orexin increase Ghrelin increase Insulin increase Leptin increase PPY increase Tissue Hypothalamus Stomach Pancreas Fat cells Digestive tract Response Increases hunger Increases hunger Increases hunger Decreases hunger Decreases hunger The hypothalamus monitors a number of hormones that are related to hunger.

Regulating Weight

   When a person’s weight drops or increases, the body responds by adjusting hunger and energy use to bring weight back to its initial stable amount.

Most mammals, without consciously regulating, have a

stable weight to which they keep

returning. This is also known as their set point.

A person’s set point might rise with age, or change with economic or cultural conditions. Therefore, this “set point” of stable weight is more of a current but temporary “settling point.”

Which foods to eat?

Taste Preferences

   Some taste preferences are universal. Carbohydrates temporarily raise levels of serotonin, reducing stress and depression.

Other tastes are acquired and become favorites through exposure, culture, and conditioning.

Different cultures encourage different tastes.

Some cultures find these foods to be delicious: reindeer fat and berries, or roasted guinea pig.

Biology, Evolution, and Taste Preferences

Differences in taste preferences are not arbitrary. Personal and cultural experience, influenced by biology, play a role.  We can acquire a food aversion after just one incident of getting sick after tasting a food.

 It is adaptive in warm climates to develop a taste for salt and spice, which preserve food.

 Disliking new tastes (neophobia) may have helped to protect our ancestors.

Cultural Factors

Countries with hot climates, in which food historically spoiled more quickly, feature recipes with more bacteria-inhibiting spices India averages nearly 10 spices per meat recipe, Finland 2 spices.

Do we need to control our hunger?

    When we eat enough to noticeably gain weight, we can face discrimination, bullying, and depression. Standards for body size can vary in different cultures, sometimes creating an unhealthy norm of being overweight or underweight.

Body fat has been seen as a sign of affluence, and thus has been considered attractive.

But at a certain ratio of weight to height, health risks arise.

The Physiology of Obesity

   Having some body fat is normal and healthy; fat stores energy.

Being mildly overweight is not necessarily a problem if the person is in good physical condition or exercising. Obesity can lead to health problems, including diabetes, heart disease, cognitive decline, and some cancers.

  The physiology of obesity can also make it hard to lose weight, due to set point/metabolism, genetics, appetite, and lifestyle factors.

Obesity, and losing weight, is not just an issue of motivation.

Set Point and Metabolism

      For a variety of reasons, a person’s

set point

healthy weight.

, the stable

weight the body keeps

returning to, drifts from a Those who becomes overweight develop a new set point that is now hard to shift. Why?

Once the set point has shifted, metabolism shifts to maintain it; resting metabolism slows. Starving to lose weight slows metabolism further.

Hunger kicks in when weight goes below he new set point.

Because the body works this way: It is thus easier to stay lean than become lean.

The Genetics of Obesity

   Adopted siblings eating the same meals end up with a BMI/weight resembling biological parents, not people in the same household.

Identical twins have similar weights, even when raised apart with different food.

There seem to be many genes with effects on weight.



Lifestyle Factors and Obesity

People who are restless and fidgeting burn off more calories and gain less weight than others.

 Inadequate sleep causes weight gain, despite increased active time, because of appetite hormones.

 Having an obese friend correlates with becoming obese.

 Sedentary lifestyles and fast food may be leading to increased body fat worldwide.

Prevalence of Obesity

Rates of being overweight BMI (body mass index) >30: Obese Projected  1 billion people worldwide are overweight, 300 million of which are obese (BMI >30).

Research on Weight Regulation and Dieting

• Fat cells are determined by genetics and food intake • They increase with weight gain, but merely shrink with weight loss; may stimulate hunger • Weight loss causes a decline in basal metabolism

Fat cells Normal diet High-fat diet Return to normal diet

Losing Weight: The Challenge

Because of the physiological factors and perhaps due to lifestyle and peer issues:  once obese, weight loss is difficult, and permanent weight loss is even harder.

 obsessive weight loss attempts can add to shame, anxiety, depression, and disordered eating habits.

Losing Weight: The Plan

If you decide to move your body’s set point to a lower body weight:

     Begin with an understanding of the metabolic challenges you face, so that you blame slow progress on physiology, not poor willpower.

Begin with self-acceptance and a decision to change, rather than feeling shame.

Make gradual and consistent, not drastic and varying, lifestyle changes. Increase exercise and healthy food choices. Get support.

Eating Disorders

Anorexia Nervosa: A condition in which a normal-weight person (usually an adolescent woman) continuously loses weight but still feels overweight.

Eating Disorders: Anorexia Nervosa

An anorexic is defined as a person who has stopped eating and is at least 25% underweight. Anorexics have low self-esteem and a distorted body image. They see themselves as being overweight.



Every system in the body can be damaged.



As the body adjusts to extremely low food intake, it becomes unable to handle nourishment except in very, very small amounts.



As with bulimia, most victims are female.

Eating Disorders

Bulimia Nervosa: A disorder characterized by episodes of overeating, usually high-calorie foods, followed by vomiting, using laxatives, fasting, or excessive exercise.

Eating Disorders: Bulimia Nervosa

Bulimia is characterized by overeating (bingeing) and induced (forced) vomiting.



80-85% of bulimics are female



Low self-esteem is a major factor



Males lose weight for sport competition



Causes irritation to the throat and mouth and future digestive problems



Causes erosion to the teeth enamel

Obesity

A disorder characterized by being excessively overweight. Obesity increases the risk for health issues like cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, hypertension, arthritis, and back problems.

Reasons for Eating Disorders

1. Sexual Abuse: Childhood sexual abuse does not cause eating disorders.

2. Family: Younger generations develop eating disorders when raised in families in which weight is an excessive concern.

3. Genetics: Twin studies show that eating disorders are more likely to occur in identical twins rather than fraternal twins.

Body Image (Women)

Western culture tends to place more emphasis on a thin body image in comparison to other cultures.

Influences on Eating Behavior

Another Motivation: “To Belong”

What do people need besides food and sex?  Aristotle: social life  Alfred Adler: community  In Middle English, to be wretched [wrecche] means to “be without kin nearby”  Roy Baumeister, Mark Leary, and Abraham Maslow say we need: “To Belong.”

Belonging:

being connected to others, part of a group or family or community.

Why do we have a need to belong?

Keeping children close to caregivers Emotional support to get through crises Evolutionary psychology perspective: seeking bonds with others aids survival in many ways Division of labor to allow growing food Mutual protection in a group Coopera tion in hunting and sharing food

Balancing Bonding with Other Needs

  The need to bond with others is so strong that we can feel lost without close relationships.

However, we also seem to need autonomy and a sense of personal competence/efficacy.

There a tension between “me” and “us,” but these goals can work together.  Belonging builds self-esteem, and prepares us for confident autonomy.

The Need to Belong Leads to: loyalty to friends, teams, groups, and families.

  

However, the need to belong also leads to:

changing our appearance to win acceptance.

staying in abusive relationships.

joining gangs, nationalist groups, and violent organizations.

Disrupted Bonds, New Beginnings

   Children repeatedly moved away from primary caretakers in childhood may have difficulty forming deep attachments in adulthood.

People losing a loved one or moving away from a hometown can feel grief.

Being 

ostracized

, cut off

from social contact or

excluded, can lead to real physical pain. And yet people can find resilience and relief from pain by building social connections.

Social Networking = Social Connection?

Is our online self disclosure honest, and healthy?

  Do updates and tweets build connection?

Use of social networking can become a compulsion, sacrificing face-to-face interaction and in depth conversation.  Research shows: Portrayal of one’s self online is often close to one’s actual sense of self.



Is social networking making us more connected, or less?

Research shows: Online social networking is associated with  Narcissism/self-centeredness  less connection to neighbors  more connection to people who share our narrow interests and viewpoints

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Belongingness

Wanting to Belong: The need to belong colors our thinking and emotions.

Social Acceptance: A sense of belonging with others increases our self-esteem. Social segregation decreases it.

Maintaining Relationships: We resist breaking social bonds, even bad ones.

Ostracism: Social exclusion leads to demoralization, depression, and at times nasty behavior.

Fortifying Health: People who tend to have close friends are happier and healthier.

Sexual Motivation

Sexual motivation is nature’s clever way of making people procreate, enabling our species to survive.

 Sex  a physiologically based motive, like hunger, but it is more affected by learning and values

What Motivates Sexual Behavior?

   Necessary for the survival of the species but not of the individual Lower animals motivated by hormonal changes in the female Higher species less influenced by hormones and more by learning and environmental influences

Sexual Motivation

 Sexual Response Cycle  the four stages of sexual responding described by Masters and Johnson     excitement plateau orgasm resolution

The Physiology of Sex

Masters and Johnson (1966) describe the human sexual response to consist of four phases: Phase Physiological Response Excitement Plateau Orgasm Resolution Genitals become engorged with blood. Vagina expands secretes lubricant. Penis enlarges.

Excitement peaks such as breathing, pulse and blood pressure.

Contractions all over the body. Increase in breathing, pulse & blood pressure. Sexual release.

Engorged genital release blood. Male goes through refractory phase . Women resolve slower.

Sexual Motivation



Refractory Period

 resting period after orgasm, during which a man cannot achieve another orgasm

Sexual Motivation

Sexual Disorders

Sexual disorders are problems that consistently impair sexual functioning.

Premature Ejaculation–

ejaculation before they or their partners wish.

3 in 10 men reported having this disorder.

Treatment: Squeeze Technique`

Impotence–

the inability to have or maintain an erection.

1 in 10 acknowledged having this disorder.

Treatment: VIAGRA

Orgasmic Disorder–

infrequently or never experiencing orgasm.

1 in 4 acknowledged having this disorder.

Treatment: Behavioral treatment that trains women to enjoy their bodies.

Hormones and Sexual Behavior

Sex hormones effect the development of sexual characteristics and (especially in animals) activate sexual behavior.

Male Female Testes Ovaries Adrenals Testosterone (Small amounts of estrogen) Estrogen (Small amounts of testosterone)

The Psychology of Sex

Hunger responds to a need. If we do not eat, we die. In that sense, sex is not a need because if we do not have sex, we do not die.

Origins of Sexual Orientation

Homosexuality is more likely based on biological factors like differing brain centers, genetics, and parental hormone exposure rather than environmental factors.

Homosexual parents

Animal Homosexuality

A number of animal species are devoted to same-sex partners, suggesting that homosexuality exists in the animal world.

Wendell and Cass

The Brain

In homosexual men, the size of the anterior hypothalamus is

smaller

(LeVay, 1991) and the anterior commissure is

larger

(Allen & Gorski, 1992).

Anterior Commissure Anterior Hypothalamus

1.

2.

3.

Genes & Sexual Orientation

A number of reasons suggest that homosexuality may be due to genetic factors.

Family: Homosexuality seems to run in families.

Twin studies: Homosexuality is more common in identical twins than fraternal twins. However, there are mixed results.

Fruit flies: Genetic engineers can genetically manipulate females to act like males during courtship and males to act like females.

1.

2.

Hormones & Sexual Orientation

Prenatal hormones affect sexual orientation during critical periods of fetal development.

Animals: Exposure of a fetus to testosterone results in females (sheep) exhibiting homosexual behavior.

Humans: Exposure of a male or female fetus to female hormones results in an attraction to males.

Heterosexual male Homosexual Heterosexual female

Sexual Orientation: Biology

Motivation to excel in work

What is our motivation to do well in our jobs?

Is it just the desire for belonging, and gaining income to meet basic needs? Humans in many cultures seem to have an achievement motivation, a

desire for:



accomplishment of goals,



mastery of skills,



meeting of standards,



control of resources.

What helps us satisfy our achievement motivation?

• Discipline: Sticking to a task despite distractions • 10-year rule: Having enough experience to Develop expertise in a field • Grit: passionate persistence at a goal • Hardiness: Resilience under stress

1.

2.

3.

Attitudes Towards Work

People have different attitudes toward work. Some take it as a: Job: Necessary way to make money.

Career: Opportunity to advance from one position to another.

Calling: Fulfilling a socially useful activity.

Flow & Rewards

Flow is the experience between no work and a lot of work. Flow marks immersion into one’s work.

People who “flow” in their work (artists, dancers, composers etc.) are driven less by extrinsic rewards (money, praise, promotion) and more by intrinsic rewards.

Work and Satisfaction

In industrialized countries work and satisfaction go hand-in-hand.

Industrial-Organizational (I/O) Psychology

1.

Applies psychological principles to the workplace. Personnel Psychology: Studies the principles of selecting and evaluating workers.

2.

Organizational Psychology: Studies how work environments and management styles influence worker motivation, satisfaction, and productivity.

Personnel Psychology

Personnel psychologists assist organizations at various stages of selecting and assessing employees.

Henri Matisse

Organizational Psychology: Motivating Achievement Achievement motivation is defined as a desire for significant accomplishment.

Skinner devised a daily discipline schedule that led him to become the 20 th century’s most influential psychologist.

Achievement Motivation

 Achievement Motivation  a desire for significant accomplishment   for mastery of things, people, or ideas for attaining a high standard

Motivation

 

Intrinsic Motivation

 Desire to perform a behavior for its own sake

Extrinsic Motivation

 Desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishments

Satisfaction & Engagement

Harter et al., (2002) observed that employee engagement means that the worker: 1. Knows what is expected of him.

2. Feels the need to work.

3. Feels fulfilled at work.

4. Has opportunities to do his best.

5. Thinks himself to be a part of something significant.

6. Has opportunities to learn and develop.

Engaged workers are more productive than non-engaged workers at different storesof the same chain.

Managing Well

Every leader dreams of managing in ways that enhance people’s satisfaction, engagement, and productivity in his or her organization.

Larry Brown offers 4-5 positive comments for every negative comment.

Motivation

  Different organizational demands need different kinds of leaders. Leadership varies from a boss focused style to a democratic style.

Task Leadership  goal-oriented leadership that sets standards, organizes work, and focuses attention on goals Social Leadership  group-oriented leadership that builds teamwork, mediates conflict, and offers support

Motivation

  Theory X  assumes that workers are basically lazy, error-prone, and extrinsically motivated by money  workers should be directed from above Theory Y  assumes that, given challenge and freedom, workers are motivated to achieve self-esteem and to demonstrate their competence and creativity

Job-Relevant Strengths

Effective leaders need to select the right people, determine their employees’ talents, adjust their work roles to their talents, and develop their talents and strengths.

Challenging Goals

Specific challenging goals motivate people to reach higher achievement levels, especially if there is feedback such as progress reports.