Transcript Errors - Houston Community College System

Data Communications and
Computer Networks: A
Business User’s Approach
Third Edition
Chapter 6:
Errors, Error Detection, and Error
Control
Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
•Identify the different types of noise commonly
found in computer networks
•Specify the different error-prevention techniques,
and be able to apply an error-prevention technique to
a type of noise
•Compare the different error-detection techniques in
terms of efficiency and efficacy
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Objectives (continued)
•Perform simple parity and longitudinal parity
calculations, and enumerate their strengths and
weaknesses
•Cite the advantages of cyclic redundancy checksum,
and specify what types of errors cyclic redundancy
checksum will detect
•Differentiate between the three basic forms of error
control, and describe the circumstances under which
each may be used
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Objectives (continued)
•Follow an example of Stop-and-wait ARQ, Goback-N ARQ, and Selective-reject ARQ
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Introduction
•Noise is always present
•If a communications line experiences too much noise
•Signal will be lost or corrupted
•Communication systems should check for
transmission errors
•Once an error is detected, a system may perform
some action
•Some systems perform no error control, but simply
let the data in error be discarded
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Noise and Errors – White Noise
•Also known as thermal or Gaussian noise
•Relatively constant
•Can be reduced
•If white noise gets to strong
•Can completely disrupt signal
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White Noise (continued)
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Impulse Noise
•One of the most disruptive forms of noise
•Random spikes of power
•Can destroy one or more bits of information
•Difficult to remove from an analog signal
•May be hard to distinguish from original signal
•Impulse noise can damage more bits if the bits are
closer together (transmitted at a faster rate)
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Impulse Noise (continued)
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Impulse Noise (continued)
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Crosstalk
•Unwanted coupling between two different signal
paths
•For example, hearing another conversation while talking
on the telephone
•Relatively constant
•Can be reduced with proper measures
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Crosstalk (continued)
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Echo
•The reflective feedback of a transmitted signal as
the signal moves through a medium
•Most often occurs on coaxial cable
•If echo bad enough, it could interfere with original
signal
•Relatively constant
•Can be significantly reduced
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Echo (continued)
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Jitter
•The result of small timing irregularities during
transmission of digital signals
•Occurs when a digital signal is repeated over and
over
•If serious enough, jitter forces systems to slow
down their transmission
•Steps can be taken to reduce jitter
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Jitter (continued)
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Delay Distortion and Attenuation
•Delay Distortion - occurs because the velocity of
propagation of a signal through a medium varies with the
frequency of the signal
•Can be reduced
•Attenuation - the continuous loss of a signal’s strength as
it travels through a medium
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Error Prevention
•To prevent errors from happening, several
techniques may be applied:
•Proper shielding of cables to reduce interference
•Telephone line conditioning or equalization
•Replacing older media and equipment with new, possibly
digital components
•Proper use of digital repeaters and analog amplifiers
•Observe the stated capacities of the media
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Error Prevention (continued)
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Error Detection
•Despite best prevention techniques, errors may still
occur
•To detect an error, error detection code has to be
added to the data/signal
•Let’s examine two basic techniques for detecting
errors:
•Parity checking
•Cyclic redundancy checksum
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Parity Checks
•Simple parity - If performing even parity, add a parity bit
such that an even number of 1s is maintained
•If performing odd parity, add a parity bit such that an odd
number of 1s is maintained
•For example, send 1001010 using even parity
•For example, send 1001011 using even parity
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Parity Checks (continued)
•What happens if the character 10010101 is sent and
the first two 0s accidentally become two 1s?
•Thus, the following character is received: 11110101
•Will there be a parity error?
•Problem: Simple parity only detects odd numbers of bits in
error
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Longitudinal Parity
•Longitudinal parity
•Adds parity bit to each character
•Then adds row of parity bits after a block of characters
•Row of parity bits is actually a parity bit for each
“column” of characters
•Row parity bits plus column parity bits add a great
amount of redundancy to a block of characters
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Longitudinal Parity (continued)
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Longitudinal Parity (continued)
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Parity Checks (continued)
•Both simple parity and longitudinal parity do not
catch all errors
•Simple parity only catches odd numbers of bit
errors
•Longitudinal parity is better at catching errors
•But requires too many check bits added to a block of data
•We need a better error detection method
•What about cyclic redundancy checksum?
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Cyclic Redundancy Checksum (CRC)
•CRC error detection method treats packet of data to
be transmitted as a large polynomial
•Transmitter
•Using polynomial arithmetic, divides polynomial by a
given generating polynomial
•Quotient is discarded
•Remainder is “attached” to the end of message
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Cyclic Redundancy Checksum
(continued)
•Message (with the remainder) is transmitted to the
receiver
•Receiver divides the message and remainder by
same generating polynomial
•If a remainder not equal to zero results  error
during transmission
•If a remainder of zero results  error during
transmission
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Cyclic Redundancy Checksum
(continued)
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Error Control
• Once an error is detected, what is the receiver
going to do?
1. Do nothing
2. Return an error message to the transmitter
3. Fix the error with no further help from the
transmitter
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Error Control (continued)
• Do nothing
• Seems like a strange way to control errors
•
Some newer systems such as frame relay perform this
type of error control
• Return a message has three basic formats:
1. Stop-and-wait ARQ
2. Go-back-N ARQ
3. Selective-reject ARQ
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Stop-and-wait ARQ
•Simplest error control protocol
•A transmitter sends a frame then stops and waits for
an acknowledgment
•If a positive acknowledgment (ACK) is received,
the next frame is sent
•If a negative acknowledgment (NAK) is received,
the same frame is transmitted again
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Stop-and-wait ARQ (continued)
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Go-back-N ARQ
•Go-back-N ARQ and selective reject are more
efficient protocols
•They assume that multiple frames are in transmission at
one time (sliding window)
•A sliding window protocol allows transmitter to
send up to the window size frames before receiving
any acknowledgments
•When a receiver does acknowledge receipt, the
returned pack contains the number of the frame
expected next
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Sliding Window Protocol
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Go-back-N ARQ (continued)
•Using the go-back-N ARQ protocol, if a
frame arrives in error, the receiver can ask the
transmitter to go back to the Nth frame and
retransmit it
•After the Nth frame is retransmitted, the
sender resends all subsequent frames
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Selective-reject ARQ
•Most efficient error control protocol
•If a frame is received in error, the receiver asks
transmitter to resend ONLY the frame that was in
error
•Subsequent frames following the Nth frame are not
retransmitted
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Selective-reject ARQ (continued)
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Selective-reject ARQ (continued)
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Selective-reject ARQ (continued)
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Selective-reject ARQ (continued)
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Correct the Error
•For a receiver to correct the error with no further
help from the transmitter requires a large amount of
redundant information accompanying original data
•This redundant information allows the receiver to
determine the error and make corrections
•This type of error control is often called forward
error correction
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Error Detection in Action
•Asynchronous transfer mode (ATM) incorporates
many types of error detection and error control
•ATM inserts a CRC into the data frame (the cell),
which checks only the header and not the data
•This CRC is also powerful enough to perform
simple error correction on the header
•A second layer of ATM applies a CRC to the data,
with varying degrees of error control
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Summary
•Noise in computer networks
•Error-prevention techniques
•Simple parity and longitudinal parity calculations
•Cyclic redundancy checksum
•Three forms of error control
•Stop-and-wait ARQ, Go-back-N ARQ and
Selective-reject ARQ
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