Transcript Slide 1

Mass production and its effect
upon employment
The industrial revolution and mass consumerism
meant that the craftsperson was replaced by
low-skilled workers in highly mechanised
factories. Although working conditions have
generally improved modern mass production still
has some social consequences:
• Reduced workforce
• High -skilled workforce required to set up and
maintain machinery
• Low-skilled workforce for more menial repetitive
jobs
The ‘new’ industrial age of hightechnology production
In this and the last century developments in
materials and manufacturing technologies
together with changes in lifestyle, revolutionised
product design. New materials such as metal
alloys, polymers and composites enabled new
ways of designing and manufacturing . In
particular, the development of digital computers
in the 1940s and the silicone chip in the 1960s
enabled relatively inexpensive portable
computer technology, which transformed modern
industrial society.
Computers in the development and manufacture of
products
CIM systems incorporating CAD and CAM have
revolutionised modern manufacturing and print industry.
On-demand printing quickly supplies the exact amount of
copies to satisfy each customer’s needs. Once designs
are finalised, printing plates can quickly be produced
using computer-to-plate (CTP) technology. This cuts out
the long process of producing printing plates manually
and instead data is transferred directly to a laser
engraver that forms the plate. Printing costs can be
significantly reduced with digital printing machines that
can operate up to 14,400 pages per hour. Digital printing
is well suited to the production of short print runs as it
does not require the making of printing plates, unlike
commercial; printing processes such as offset
lithography. In post-press, the printed materials can be
die-cut, folded, glued or bound using automated
Digital Printing and Packaging
Miniaturisation of products and components
The most important technological development in recent
years has been in the field of microelectronics. Not only
have products reduced in size through technological
advances but multi-functional products have become
possible. Think of the range of facilities and services
now capable through smart phones and digital tablets.
The miniaturisation of mobile phones has been
possible due to three key developments:
Use of smart materials and products for
innovative applications
The continued development of smart materials has been applied to a
whole range of innovative products and systems where their ability
to respond to changes and return to their original state is a real
advantage.
Homework for Monday
Question 3 & 4: Exam paper June 2010
The Global Marketplace
In order to be competitive many companies sell
their products all over the world. It can
sometimes be a problem to design for unfamiliar
markets or design products that will sell across
different countries. In order to overcome this
many companies will:
• Employ world wide design teams.
• Use focused market research to discover the
needs of specific markets.
Offshore manufacturing of
multinationals
This is a driving force in the global marketplace.
There is an increased awareness by
multinationals companies based in developed
countries (the West and Australia) of the value of
offshore manufacturing as a vital strategic tool.
Many companies will draw upon the individual
expertise of other countries to develop new
products, especially in the field of technology.
Companies are relocating to less-developed
countries such as India, China and former Soviet
nations and outsourcing their work.
Initially jobs in developing countries were created
through the manufacture of shoes, cheap
electronics and toys, and subsequently simple
service work such as processing credit card
receipts. Now all kinds of ‘knowledge work’ and
manufacturing can be performed almost
anywhere e.g. UK companies have many call
centres in India. The driving forces are
digitisation, the Internet and high-speed data
networks that cover the entire globe. Design
data can simply be sent to another country for
manufacture or localised expertise can provide
the design and development of products.
Why do multinationals manufacture offshore, or
outsource?
The answer is quite simple: it costs them less. It is
now possible to receive the same quality work at
a fraction of the cost than if Western companies
manufactured in their own countries. The main
reduction in cost is in labour and materials. This
raises certain ethical issues:
• Unemployment in developed countries
• Exploitation of labour in developing countries
• Dependence upon largely unskilled jobs
• Exploitation of natural resources
• Environmental concerns in developing countries.
Local and global production
Issues relating to local and global production are
concerned with the effects of the global
economy and multinationals on:
• Quality of life
• Employment
• Environmental
Whilst the headquarters of multinationals are
based in developed countries, some
multinationals are based in developing
countries. Though economic regeneration is
generally welcomed by the governments of
developing countries, there are also a number of
negative effects on the local population.
Advantages and disadvantages of global manufacturing in developing
countries:
Influence of design history on the development of
products
The history of design is inextricably linked to the
social, political and economic history of the
modern world. The timeline below demonstrates
the overlapping of design movements and that
one movement did not simply end and another
take its place.
Design movements;
Arts and Crafts (1850 1900)
Philosophy - Grew out of a concern for the
effects of industrialisation upon design,
traditional craftsmanship and the lives of
ordinary ‘working class’ people.
William Morris (1834-1896)
‘Have nothing in your house
that you do not know to be
useful, or believe to be
beautiful.’
Art Nouveau (1890-1905)
Philosophy - Art Nouveau or ‘new art’ was
an international style of decoration and
architecture that developed in the late 19th
century. The underlying principle of Art
Nouveau was the concept of a unity and
harmony across the various fine arts and
crafts media and the formulation of new
aesthetic values. Art Nouveau forms a
bridge between the Arts and Crafts and
Modernism.
Charles Rennie Mackintosh (1868-1928)
In Britain the Art Nouveau style was
exemplified by the Scot Charles Rennie
Mackintosh. He was an architect,
designer, watercolourist and artist.
Modernism (1900-1930)
Philosophy – Modernist architects and designers rejected
the old style of designing based upon natural form and
materials. They believed in ‘the machine aesthetic’,
which celebrated new technology, mechanised industry
and modern materials that symbolised the new 21st
century. The Bauhaus (house for building) group in
Germany exemplified Modernist theory and practice.
The work of Marcel Breuer (1920-1981) exemplified the
Modernist style.
Style:
• ‘Form follows function’- Bauhaus featured functional
design as opposed to highly decorative design.
Designers produced high-end functional products with
artistic pretensions which primarily worked well but also
looked good. Simple, geometrically pure forms were
adopted with clean lines and the elimination of clutter.
• ‘products for a machine age’ – Products respected the
use of modern materials such as tubular steel and
mechanised mass production processes. As a result
products looked like they had been made by machines
and were not based upon natural forms as with previous
movements.
• ‘Everyday objects for everyday people’ – Consumer
goods should be functional, cheap and easily mass
produced so that ordinary working-class people could
afford them.
Art Deco (1925-1939)
Streamlining (1935-1955)
Philosophy- Towards the end of the Art Deco
period a new style emerged known as
Streamline Moderne, influenced by the
modern aerodynamic designs derived from
advancing technologies in aviation and
high-speed transportation.
Style:
• Teardrop shape- Sleek efficient forms of airliners and
marine life as inspiration, the form adopted as perfect
aerodynamicism was that of the teardrop. This
aerodynamic form became the new aesthetic direction
and guided the design of modern products.
• Futuristic design – Science fiction provided optimism
for a newer and better future with sleek rocket shapes
and atom designs.
Post-modernism (1975 – present)
Philosophy- The term ‘post-modernism’ was first coined
by architect Charles Jencks. He used it to criticise the
functionalism of the modernism movement. And to
describe the eclectic new design styles being developed
by a whole range of contemporary architects and
designers. Out of this period came the Memphis Group
comprising Italian designers and architects who created
a series of highly influential products in the 1980s.
Founder member Ettore Sottsass disagreed with the
approach of the time and challenged the idea that
products had to follow conventional shapes, colours,
textures and patterns. They drew inspiration from such
movements as Art Deco and Pop Art, styles such as the
1950s Kitsch (tasteless/vulgar) and futuristic themes.
The work of the Memphis Group has been described as
vibrant, eccentric and ornamental.
Philippe Starck (1949-)
Starck is a well known French designer and probably the best known
designer in the New Design Style. His designs include a diverse
range, from spectacular interior designs to mass-produced
consumer goods such as toothbrushes, chairs and even houses.
His products are often stylised, streamlined and organic in their
appearance. They posses humour and individual personality.
Page131
Form and function
The connection between form and function has been one of
the most controversial issues in the history of. When
products were first mass produced in Victorian times
they were highly decorated to look like hand-made
products, whether their decoration was appropriate or
not. The development of ‘reform’ groups such as the
Arts and Crafts movement gradually brought about
change in the concept of design. The form of products
was to be simplified and the products well made from
suitable materials.
Victorian chair
Arts and Crafts chair
At the turn of the 20th century, developments in materials and
technology enabled the production of innovative new products such
as the telephone. Many of these products were so innovative that
there was benchmark on which to base their designs.
The development of mass production techniques required that products
be standardised, simple and easy to produce. The modernist
movement, which supported functionalism, suggested that the form
(shape) of a product must suit its function and not include any
excessive or unnecessary decoration. Therefore, for a product to be
mass produced at a profit, it needed to be easy to produce. Product
performance and reliability are no longer real issues for the
consumer as most products carry guarantees and are subject to
rigorous quality assurance procedures.
The main reason for choosing one product over another with similar
functions is its aesthetic qualities. One of the roles of the designer,
then is to provide the product with the right style or image for a
particular market group e.g. trainers are more often bought for the
label rather than functionality. With so many products mass
produced designers try to inject a sense of individuality or
personality into products to make them more attractive to customers.
The designer has to walk a fine line between individual, humorous
designs and practical products if they are to be successful. The
Alessi did overstep the line between form and function with the Hot
Bertaa kettle designed by Philippe Starck, which had to be
withdrawn from production as it did not boil water very well or safely.
This is an important lesson for any modern designer, who must
strike a balance between the form and function of a product.
VS
Anthropometrics and ergonomics
The relationship between anthropometrics and ergonomics:
Ergonomics
Ergonomics is the science of designing products, systems and environments
for human use. This means applying the characteristics of human users to
the design of a product – in other words, matching the product to the user.
Anthropometrics
In order to design products that are comfortable and easy to use data about the
size and shape of the human body is required- this branch of ergonomics is
called anthropometrics. Anthropometrics deals with human measurements,
in particular their shapes and sizes.
Sources and applications of anthropometric data
When applying anthropometric data to a design problem,
the designer’s aim is to provide an acceptable match for
the greatest possible number of users. This is achieved
by the use of data charts such as those issued by British
Standards Institute (BSI). Simple data charts relating to
measurements for men, women and children can also be
found in the clothing sections of mail order catalogues.
Statistical data available from the BSI is associated with
heights of people. The height at which 5 per cent of the
population is shorter is known as the fifth percentile.
Likewise, the height at which only 5 per cent of people
are taller is known as the 95th percentile. The
anthropometric data that covers 90 per cent of the British
population covers those that fall between the fifth and
95th percentile.
90% of the population the Fifth to 95th percentile
Scan page 135
See Question 2 June 2010
1a – Designers exclude a percentage of a
designed user group because people vary
so much in size (1) it can be difficult to
produce a design that suits everybody. (1)
the design needs to fit the majority and not
extremes (1) to make it user friendly. (1) It
is difficult to meet the needs of everybody
(1) in a range of people (1) from the
bottom 5% to the top 95% (1)
(2x1) 2 Marks Max.
1b – It is beneficial to consumers because:
• People come in all shapes and sizes. (1)
• Ergonomics takes into account people’s wide range of sizes/takes
account of human measurements. (1)
• Designers make products usable for the majority of people. (1)
• Ergonomic design makes the product safer/comfortable to use. (1)
• Ergonomic design can improve health by reducing back pain. (1)
• Ignoring ergonomic design can affect users’ health. (1)
• Poor ergonomic design can effect productivity/affect efficiency. (1)
• Ergonomic design can affect the sales/success of products. (1)
• Fit for purpose/interacts with customer. (1)
• Product is made user friendly/easy to use. (1)
Do not accept statements that refer to “designed for the majority”
(6x1) 6 Marks Max.
School chair:
The designer has considered form and function as:
• An example of function over form. (1)
• It has no decoration/simple/basic design. (1)
• It is ergonomically designed to accommodate a wide range of
users/target market. (1)
• The form allows for mass production methods. (1)
• The form allows for easy/stacked storage/easily moved. (1)
• Purely functional as something to sit on (comfortably may be
added). (1)
• It easy to manufacture by injection moulding. (1)
• Ergonomically designed to suit stated age range. (1)
• Materials used suit mass production techniques. (1)
• Materials used are durable/hard wearing/strong/support load/sturdy.
(1)
(4x1) 4 Marks Max.
Mackintosh chair:
The designer has considered form and function as:
• An example of form over function. (1)
• Its form makes it a lifestyle statement/product. (1)
• The form not necessarily ergonomically designed/not comfortable.
(1)
• Very decorative/stylised/Art Nouveau. (1)
• Form means that it will probably be small batch produced. (1)
• Materials used are less functional but enhance the form. (1)
• Designed for low manufacturing numbers. (1)
• Its function is to be aesthetically pleasing/looks good. (1)
• Appearance is its main function. (1)
• Designed to fit in with the whole room design/appearance. (1)
• Fits a niche market. (1)
• Can be sat on. (1)
Sustainability
Sustainability means safeguarding the world for
ourselves and for future generations, using
energy and other resources in a way that
minimise their depletion, and designing for a
better quality of life. In recent years we have
had to rethink our approach to design, materials
usage and manufacturing methods by moving
towards an approach that considers economic,
social and environmental issues and the use of
cleaner design and technology. These are not
simply issues for governments and large
companies but for everyone.
How do these images affect you?
Life-cycle assessment
Balancing the needs against the impact to the environment
is becoming increasingly more difficult for manufacturers
as they strive to develop new products and processes.
Life-cycle assessment (LCA) is a technique now widely
used to assess and evaluate the impact of the product or
packaging ‘from cradle to grave’ through extraction of
raw materials, the production phase, and life-cycle
processes including distribution, use and final disposal of
the product.
6 (a) Explain how a company benefits from carrying out a
life cycle assessment (LCA) on its product.
(Exam Paper June 2011)
6(a) Any two of the following with a relevant explanation :• Reduce the volume / range of materials /processes required
(1) enabling materials costs to reduce. (1)
• Reduce the amount of energy required to design / manufacture
/ distribute the product (1) helping the company meet
emissions targets / reduce energy costs. (1)
• Promote the product /company as being environmentally
friendly (1) so increasing its appeal / sales to conscientious
consumers.(1)
• Setup production nearer to suppliers / markets (1) reducing
transportation costs. (1)
• Establish a life length for the product (1) so that they know
when to launch a new product / establish a warranty length.(1)
(b) Reusing products such as printer ink cartridges is one strategy used
to minimise waste. Evaluate the issues associated with reusing
products to minimise waste.
6(b)
Any four of the following points but the response must contain at
least one positive and one negative to gain full marks.
Positives
• Reconditioned products appeal more to environmentally
aware consumers. (1)
• Fewer products will be discarded to landfill /reduced pollution. (1)
• Manufacturer has reduced need for raw materials / production
systems / energy. (1)
Negatives
• Workable collection systems need to be established in order
to recover the used products. (1)
• A system to refill / reprocess the product needs setting up.
(1)
• Systems for quality checking the reprocessed products need
to be established. (1)
• Consumers expect a lower price on a reconditioned product. (1)
• Less new products will be sold. (1)
• Often costs more to re-process than manufacture new. (1)
• Products designed to be re-used need to be more robust adding
to production costs / some products are not robust enough to be
re-used (1)
(4 x 1)
Life-cycle inventory
Modern consumers expect companies to
pay attention to the environmental impact
that the production of their products has.
British Standards and the ISO 1400 series
of standards now demand continuous
improvement in a company’s
environmental management systems, of
which a life-cycle inventory is an important
aspect.
A life-cycle inventory describes which raw
materials are used and what emissions will
occur during the life of a product. All the
inputs and outputs are collated during the
lif-cycle of a product, including:
• Environmental inputs and outputs of raw
materials and energy resources
• Economic inputs and outputs of
products, components or energy that are
outputs from other processes.
The life-cycle inventory can be expressed as a process tree where each box
represents a process with defined inputs and outputs that forms part of the life
cycle. The second stage of this process is to interpret the data to assess the
overall environmental impact of the product. (See Diagram page 138)
Cleaner design and technology
Sustainable product design
Page 139-143
Edwin Datschefski five factors that make up
sustainability:
• Cyclic
• Safe
• Efficient
• Social
Raw materials:
• Environmental and economic costs of raw materials for packaging
and product manufacture.
Manufacture:
• Conversion of raw materials into finished products incurs
considerable environmental impact and costs
The Coca-Cola ‘202’ drinks can:
• Reduction in raw materials and costs.
Distribution:
• Carbon dioxide emissions from transport
Alternative to fossil fuels:
• LPG
• Bio ethanol
• Compressed natural gas
• Hydrogen
• Electricity
Use and maintenance:
• Built-in-obsolescence
• Repair versus Replacement
Exam Paper June 2010 question:
7(b) Discuss, from the manufacturers’
perspective, the issue of ‘repair versus
replacement’ with regard to consumer
goods.
7(b) Any six of the following but must include at least one positive and one
negative to gain maximum marks :Positives points that increase profits.
• Product has an increased appeal and therefore sales due to
having an extended life time. (1)
• Increased sales of spares / revenue from repair service. (1)
• Reputation of business improves as it is seen as a responsible
manufacturer. (1)
• It is not economically viable to repair some products, resulting
in replacement sales. Eg. biros, DVD’s, (1)
Negatives points that reduce profits.
• Sell fewer new products / stifles upgrading products. (1)
• Increased demand on after sales support team. (1)
• Product will need re-designing to allow for easily
interchangeable parts. (1)
• Stocks of spare parts need to be manufactured and kept, tying
up capital / requiring storage facilities. (1)
• Repairing products can be very time consuming making it
expensive. (1)
(6 x 1)
[The above answers are from the view point of making products
repairable rather than replacing them. Any correctly stated converse
point from the replacement
Minimising waste production
Waste is lost profit!
There are some simple options to consider
when deciding how to minimise waste
production at the end-of-life stage; they
are referred to as the four Rs:
• Reduce
• Reuse
• Recover
• Recycle
• Reduce: Waste prevention, or "source reduction," means consuming
and throwing away less. Source reduction actually prevents the
generation of waste in the first place, so it is the most preferred
method of waste management and goes a long way toward protecting
the environment.
• Reuse: Reusing items -- by repairing them, donating them to charity and
community groups, or selling them -- also reduces waste. Reusing
products, when possible, is even better than recycling because the
item does not need to be reprocessed before it can be used again.
• Recover: Recovering items – by using the product as a source of fuel at
the end of its life cycle. Waste that cannot readily be recycled but can
burn cleanly can be incinerated in specialised power stations to
generate electricity and provide hot water for the local area.
• Recycle: Recycling transforms materials that would otherwise become
waste into valuable resources. In addition, it generates a host of
environmental, financial, and social benefits. Materials like glass,
metal, plastics, and paper are collected, separated and sent to
facilities that can process them into new materials or products.
Renewable and non-renewable sources of
energy
The industrial revolution brought about a dependence on
the burning of fossil fuels to provide energy for
machinery. Today we still depend largely upon coal, gas
and oil to generate power for industry. The burning of
fossil fuels on an increasingly massive scale has
resulted in large emissions of carbon dioxide. This is
often called a greenhouse gas that contributes to global
warming. The effects of global warming are not
accepted by everyone but most scientist agree that
climatic change is taking place at a faster rate than
normal. The worse case scenario could see a rise in
global temperatures and changes in weather pattern
leading to massive population displacement. A more
sustainable solution for the planet’s future energy needs
based upon economic and environmental implications
must be sought to help prevent or alleviate this.
The ‘Sandals versus the ‘Nukes’
The debate about global warming has seen two
paths emerge from the ‘green’ groups:
• Those who believe in the wide scale use of
renewable energy sources like wind, solar and
biofuels.
• Those who advocate less dependence on nature
and the increase use of nuclear energy and
carbon-scrubbed natural gas.
Be familiar with tables on
Advantages/Disadvantages of
renewable and non-renewable sources
of energy.
Pages 148 & 149
Responsibilities of developed countries.
Global sustainable development
For the developed nations the challenge we face is
one of reducing the use of scarce resources and
reduce pollution. This will require a move
towards sustainable consumption and the
reduction of our ‘carbon footprint’ (a measure of
the impact human activities have on the
environment in terms of the amount of
greenhouse gasses produced, measured in
units of carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous
oxide).
You can check your personal or household carbon
footprint by using the calculator at:
www.carbonfootprint.com
For third world or developing countries the challenge they
face are different to our own. They have for example to
gain access to the basic needs we take for granted:
• Clean water
• Electricity
• Health care
• Education
• Housing
One method might be to trade more with developed
countries to bring in much needed foreign investment to
domestic economies. They will need to have access to
markets in developed countries in order to expand. This
is made more difficult when developed countries ‘tighten
their belt’ in times of economic hardship. Developed
countries need to shrink their markets to address overconsumption, which creates tighter and more
impenetrable markets for developing countries to trade
with.
With the establishment of the World Summit
on Sustainable Development (WSSD)
authorised by the United Nations General
Assembly sustainable development has
become a focal point. Developed
countries have to oversee the
implementation of the Earth Summit
agreements e.g. global trade or reduction
in greenhouse emissions.
Norway has suggested practical steps towards
sustainable consumption that would include:
• Improving analysis, public awareness and
participation
• Providing incentives for sustainable use, efficiency
and renewable sources
• Implementing new strategies for transportation and
sustainable cities.
• Accelerating the use of more efficient and cleaner
technologies
• Strengthening international action and cooperation
(Norway 1994)
If global sustainable development is to succeed then all
nations must firstly agree terms and conditions and
secondly, and more importantly, implement the
changes needed.
Impact of industrialisation on global warming
and climate change
Kyoto Protocol
• The Kyoto Protocol is a protocol to the United
Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change (UNFCCC or FCCC), aimed at
fighting global warming. The UNFCCC is an
international environmental treaty with the
goal of achieving the "stabilisation of
greenhouse gas concentrations in the
atmosphere at a level that would prevent
dangerous anthropogenic interference with the
climate system."
The Protocol was initially adopted on 11 December
1997 in Kyoto, Japan, and entered into force on 16
February 2005. As of September 2011, 191 states
have signed and ratified the protocol. The only
remaining signatory not to have ratified the protocol
is the United States. Other United Nations member
states which did not ratify the protocol are
Afghanistan, Andorra and South Sudan. In December
2011, Canada renounced the Protocol.
“The Kyoto Protocol does not cover the world's largest two emitters,
United States and China, and therefore cannot work," Kent said. "It's
now clear that Kyoto is not the path forward global solution to
climate change. If anything it's an impediment."
Canadian Environment Minister Peter Kent
Participating countries agreed on a set of ‘common but
differentiated responsibilities’:
• The largest share of historical and current global emissions of
greenhouse gases has originated in developed countries.
• Per capita emissions in developing countries are still relatively
low.
• The share of global emissions originating in developing
countries will grow to meet their social and development
needs.
This means that developing countries are exempt from emission
reduction targets although developing countries such as China
and India are undergoing rapid industrialisation and are
exempt at present they will still share the common
responsibility in reducing emissions. The USA supported it in
principle but has never confirmed its participation. This may
be due to the massive amounts of energy required to sustain its
economy and the reluctance to accept any targets imposed
upon it.
The Non-Fossil Fuel Obligation (NFFO)
The Non-Fossil Fuel Obligation (NFFO)
refers to a collection of orders requiring
the electricity Distribution Network
Operators in England and Wales to
purchase electricity from the nuclear
power and renewable energy sectors.
Similar mechanisms operate in Scotland
(the Scottish Renewable Orders under the
Scottish Renewables Obligation) and
Northern Ireland (the Northern Ireland
Non-Fossil Fuel Obligation).
The Non-Fossil Fuel Obligation was put in place
under the powers of the Electricity Act 1989,
under which electricity generation in the UK was
privatised. The original intention was to provide
financial support to the UK nuclear power
generators, which continued to be state owned.
The proposals were enlarged in scope before
the Obligation was brought into operation in
1990 to include the renewable energy sector.
Contracts from the last three rounds remain in
place with the generators receiving the agreed
amount from the NFPA and the NFPA effectively
taking ownership of the Renewables Obligation
Certificate (ROC) which the generator is entitled
to.
The most promising sources of alternative energy
in the UK are:
• Wind
• Wave
• Tidal
Wind energy is rapidly expanding and the UK has
the largest potential wind energy resources in
Europe. The cost of wind power has reduced
considerably over the last few years due to the
fall in cost of turbines, the increase in size of
turbines meaning that fewer are needed and
decreasing project development costs as
developers have gained experience. Although
wind farms have been controversial when
located onshore, the recent trend for offshore
locations could be a compromise that will benefit
• Marine renewable technologies such as wave
and tidal energies are a huge untapped resource
for the UK, having the best wave and tidal
resource in Europe. It has the potential of
providing a considerable proportion of the UK’s
energy needs and a number of innovative
marine energy devices are currently under
development. However, such technologies face
a number of challenges before they become fully
operational on a large-scale commercial basis.
There are still key scientific challenges to be
addressed in areas including, resource
assessment and predictability, engineering
design and manufacturability, installation,
operation and maintenance, survivability,
reliability and cost reduction.
Reducing your ‘carbon footprint’
Every time you watch television or use any
electrical device you are producing carbon
emissions because of the burning of fossil fuels
in the generation of electricity. Therefore, it is
everyone’s responsibility to reduce his or her
individual carbon footprint. In the first instance
this involves recognising their personal impact
on global warming, including:
• Annual household energy use, e.g. electricity
and gas use
• Annual travel, i.e. car and public transport,
flights, etc.
There are many ways that an individual can
save energy in the household, these include:
• Installing energy-saving lightbulbs
• Turning electrical appliances off when not in use.
• Car pooling, cycling or public transport
• Carbon offsetting
Carbon offsetting is a way of compensating for the
emissions produced with an equivalent carbon
dioxide saving. These can range in scale from
planting trees in the UK to conservation of
wildlife habitats in Africa or South America.
Some of the larger projects can also benefit local
communities by providing employment, which
reduces poverty.
Manufacturers can reduce their carbon
footprint by:
• Applying life-cycle assessment (LCA) techniques
to products in order to accurately determine the
current carbon footprint
• Identifying ‘hot spots’ in production processes in
terms of energy consumption and associated
carbon dioxide emissions (LCI)
• Optimising energy efficiency, so reducing carbon
dioxide emissions and other greenhouse gases
contributed from production processes
• Identifying carbon offsetting solutions to
neutralise the carbon dioxide emissions that
cannot be eliminated by energy-saving
measures.
Sustainable timber production
The UK relies heavily upon the import of
forest products and accounts for 8% of
global trade in tropical hardwoods. The
developing countries that produce this
timber benefit little from this trade, with
only 10.5% of the revenue from timber
production benefiting the producing
country.
Timber has been the focus of
considerable efforts over the
past decade to establish more
sustainable production and
trading systems. There are a
number of problems associated
with forests:
Countries dependent upon the
import of timber, such as the
UK, have a responsibility to
encourage the development of
sustainable production and
trading systems to minimise the
amount of deforestation and its
effect upon the environment,
including: