Transcript Finding Your Focus: The Writing Process

Lecture(1)
Outline
General Writing Concerns
Planning/Starting to Write
Effective Writing
Revising/Editing/Proofreading
 Writing Essays
I. Planning/Starting to Write
Finding Your Focus:
The Writing Process
Everyone has a writing process.
What is yours?
Why do you need a writing
process?
• It can help writers to
organize their
thoughts.
• It can help writers to
avoid frustration.
• It can help writers to
use their time
productively and
efficiently.
Writing process
•
•
•
•
•
•
Invention
Collection
Organization
Drafting
Revising
Proofreading
Invention: coming up with your
topic
• Explore the problem—not
the topic
• Make your goals operational
• Generate some ideas
Brainstorming: coming up with
ideas that interest you
Listing:
Brainstorming
Paper Topics
Political apathy
Animal abuse
NFL instant replay
Air pollution
Telemarketing scams
Internet censorship
NBA salary caps
Clustering: mapping out ideas
sportsmanship
NBA
salary
caps
ME
animal
abuse
three-party
system
Flag
Burning
Amendment
political
apathy
First
Amendment
Internet censorship
NFL instant
replay
telemarketing
scams
Collection
• Gathering ideas
• Locating and
evaluating research
• Conducting
interviews
Organizing: putting information
in an outline
OUTLINE
I. Introduction
A. State thesis
II. Body
A. Build points
B. Develop ideas
C. Support main claim
III. Conclusion
A. Reemphasize main
idea
Drafting
Revising: reviewing ideas
• Review higher order
concerns:
– Clear communication
of ideas
– Organization of paper
– Paragraph structure
– Strong introduction
and conclusion
Proofreading
• Review laterorder concerns:
– Spelling
– Punctuation
– Sentence
structure
– Documentation
style
Proofreading tips
• Slowly read your paper
aloud
• Read your paper
backwards
• Exchange papers with a
friend
• NOTE: Spelling check
will not catch everything,
and grammar checks are
often wrong!
Writing process: find your focus
•
•
•
•
•
•
Invention
Collection
Organization
Drafting
Revising
Proofreading
II. Effective Writing
• Adding Emphasis
• Coherence
• Conciseness: Methods of
Eliminating Wordiness
(Cont’d)
• Non-Sexist Language
• Strategies for Improving
Sentence Clarity
1. Adding Emphasis
a. Punctuation Marks for Achieving
Emphasis
Examples:
The employees were surprised by the
decision,which was not to change company
policy.
The employees were surprised by the decision-no change in company policy.
The employees were surprised by the decision:
no change in company policy.
b. Choice and Arrangement of Words
for Achieving Emphasis

The simplest way to emphasize something is
to tell readers directly that what follows is
important by using such words and phrases as
especially, particularly, crucially, most
importantly, and above all.
• The inversion of the standard subject-verb-
object pattern in the first sentence below into
an object-subject-verb pattern in the second
places emphasis on the out-of-sequence
term.
Examples:
– I'd make fifty dollars in just two hours on
a busy night at the restaurant.
Fifty dollars I'd make in just two hours on a
busy night at the restaurant.
– No one can deny that the computer has
had a great effect upon the business world.
Undeniably, the effect of the computer
upon the business world has been great.
C. Sentence Position and Variation
for Achieving Emphasis
Example:
For a long time, but not any more, Japanese
corporations used Southeast Asia merely
as a cheap source of raw materials, as a
place to dump outdated equipment and
overstocked merchandise, and as a training
ground for junior executives who needed
minor league experience.
(Cont’d)
For a long time Japanese corporations used
Southeast Asia merely as a cheap source of raw
materials, as a place to dump outdated
equipment and overstocked merchandise, and
as a training ground for junior executives who
needed minor league experience. But those
days have ended.
2. Coherence
a. Repetition of a Key Term or Phrase
Example:
The problem with contemporary art is that it is not
easily understood by most people. Modern art is
deliberately abstract, and that means that
contemporary art leaves the viewer wondering
what she is looking at.
b. Synonyms
Example :
Myths narrate sacred history and explain sacred
origins. These traditional narratives are, in short,
a set of beliefs that are a very real force in the
lives of the people who tell them.
C. Using Transitional Words
Example:
I like autumn, and yet autumn is a sad time of the
year, too. The leaves turn bright shades of red and
the weather is mild, but I can't help thinking ahead
to the winter and the ice storms that will surely
blow through here. In addition, that will be the
season of chapped faces, too many layers of clothes
to put on, and days when I'll have to shovel heaps
of snow from my car's windshield.
3. Conciseness
a. Methods of Eliminating Wordiness
• Eliminate unnecessary determiners and
modifiers:
Example:
Any particular type of dessert is fine with
me.
Any dessert is fine with me.
(Cont’d)
Balancing the budget by Friday is an
impossibility without some kind of extra help.
Balancing the budget by Friday is impossible
without extra help
Here's a list of some words and phrases that
can often be pruned away to make sentences
clearer:
kind of
sort of
type of
really
basically
for all intents and
purposes
definitely
actually
generally
individual
specific
particular
Example
For all intents and purposes, American industrial
productivity generally depends on certain factors
that are really more psychological in kind than of
any given technological aspect.
American industrial productivity depends more
on psychological than on technological factors.
b. Change phrases into single words
Examples
- The employee with ambition...
- The department showing the best performance...
The ambitious employee...
The best-performing department...
(Cont’d)
- Jeff Converse, our chief of consulting, suggested
at our last board meeting the installation of
microfilm equipment in the department of data
processing.
At our last board meeting, chief consultant Jeff
Converse suggested that we install microfilm
equipment in the data processing department.
(Cont’d)
- As you carefully read what you have written
to improve your wording and catch small errors
of spelling, punctuation, and so on, the thing to
do before you do anything else is to try to see
where a series of words expressing action could
replace the ideas found in nouns rather than
verbs.
As you edit, first find nominalizations that you can
replace with verb phrases.
C. Change unnecessary that, who,
and which clauses into phrases
Wordy
- The report, which was released recently...
- All applicants who are interested in the job must...
- The system that is most efficient and accurate...
More Concise
- The recently released report...
- All job applicants must...
- The most efficient and accurate system...
D. Avoid overusing expletives at the
beginning of sentences
Wordy
- It is the governor who signs or vetoes bills.
- There are four rules that should be observed: ...
- There was a big explosion, which shook the
windows, and people ran into the street.
More Concise
- The governor signs or vetoes bills.
- Four rules should be observed:...
- A big explosion shook the windows, and people
ran into the street.
E. Avoid overusing noun forms of
verbs
Wordy
The function of this department is the collection
of accounts.
The current focus of the medical profession is
disease prevention.
More Concise
This department collects accounts.
The medical profession currently focuses on
disease prevention.
F. Reword unnecessary infinitive
phrases
Wordy
- The duty of a clerk is to check all incoming mail
and to record it.
- A shortage of tellers at our branch office on
Friday and Saturday during rush hours has caused
customers to become dissatisfied with service.
More Concise
A clerk checks and records all incoming mail.
A teller shortage at our branch office on Friday
and Saturday during rush hours has caused
customer dissatisfaction.
4. Strategies for
Improving
Sentence Clarity
Sentence Clarity
Why do we need to be concerned with
sentence clarity?
To communicate effectively to the
reader
To make writing persuasive
To show credibility and authority as a
writer
Common clarity problems
 Misplaced
modifiers
 Dangling
modifiers
 Passive voice
Misplaced Modifiers
• A word or phrase
that causes
confusion because
it is located within
a sentence so far
away from the
word(s) to which it
refers
Misplaced Modifiers
• Consider the different
meanings in the following
sentences:
The dog under the tree bit
Carrie.
vs.
The dog bit Carrie under the
tree.
How might you correct the
following sentence?
Jennifer called her adorable kitten opening
the can of tuna and filled the food bowl.
Better: Opening the can of tuna, Jennifer
called her adorable kitten and filled the
food bowl.
How might you correct the
following sentence?
Portia rushed to the
store loaded with cash
to buy the birthday gift.
Better: Portia, loaded
with cash, rushed to the
store to buy the birthday
gift.
Misplaced Modifiers
• Some one-word modifiers often
cause confusion:
almost
even
just
hardly
nearly
merely
simply
only
Explain the meaning of each
sentence:
• Almost everyone in the
class passed the
calculus exam.
• Everyone in the class
almost passed the
calculus exam.
• Which sentence
indicates that everyone
in the class failed the
exam?
Explain the meaning of each
sentence:
• John nearly earned $100.
• John earned nearly $100.
• Which sentence
indicates that John
earned some money?
Dangling modifiers
• A word or phrase that
modifies another word or
phrase that has not been
stated clearly within the
sentence
often occur at the beginnings and
ends of sentences
often indicated by an -ing verb or
a to + verb phrase
Dangling modifiers
Having finished dinner, the
football game was turned on.
Having finished dinner, Joe
turned on the football game.
Dangling modifiers
 can be repaired by
 placing the subject
of the modification
phrase as the
subject of the
independent clause
 placing the subject
of the action within
the dangling
phrase
How might you correct the
following sentence?
Playing solitaire on the computer for three
hours, Michael’s paper was not completed.
Better: Playing solitaire on the computer for
three hours, Michael did not complete his
paper.
Better: Because Michael played solitaire on the
computer for three hours, he did not complete
the paper.
How might you correct the following
sentence?
Locked away in the old chest, Richard
was surprised by the antique hats.
Better: Locked away in the old chest, the
antique hats surprised Richard.
Better: The antique hats locked away in
the old chest surprised Richard.
How might you correct the
following sentence?
To work as a loan officer, an education
in financial planning is required.
Better: To work as a loan officer, one is
required to have an education in
financial planning.
How might you correct the
following sentence?
Being a process that still needs to be
refined, scientists are searching for a
more effective plan for chemotherapy
treatment.
Better: Scientists are searching for a
more effective plan for chemotherapy
treatment, a process that still needs to
be refined.
Passive Voice
indicates what is receiving the action rather
than explaining who is doing the action
two indicators
 "to be" verbs—is, are, was, were
 "by ________”
• Examples:
•
Mistakes were made.
•
The cats were brushed by Laura.
How might you improve the
following sentence?
The decision that was reached by the
committee was to postpone the vote.
Better: The committee reached the decision
to postpone the vote.
Best: The committee decided to postpone the
vote.
How might you correct the
following sentence?
The disk drive of the computer was damaged
by the electrical surge.
Better: The electrical surge damaged the disk
drive of the computer.
Best: The electrical surge damaged the
computer's disk drive.
Exercises
Every semester after final exams are over, I'm
faced with the problem of what to do with books of
lecture notes (new information). They (old) might
be useful some day, but they just keep piling up on
my bookcase (new). Someday, it (old) will collapse
under the weight of information I might never
need.
Better: Lately, most movies I've seen have been
merely second-rate entertainment, but occasionally
there are some with worthwhile themes. The rapid
disappearance of the Indian culture (new) is the
topic of a recent movie (old) I saw.
Go from old to new
information
Industrial spying,because of the growing use of
computers to store and process corporate
information, is increasing rapidly.
Better: Because of the growing use of
computers to store and process corporate
information, industrial spying is increasing
rapidly.
Better: Industrial spying is increasing rapidly
because of the growing use of computers to
store and process corporate information.
Be careful about
placement of
subordinate clauses
One difference between television news reporting
and the coverage provided by newspapers is the
time factor between the actual happening of an
event and the time it takes to be reported. The
problem is that instantaneous coverage is
physically impossible for newspapers.
Better:
Television news reporting differs from that of
newspapers in that television, unlike newspapers,
can provide instantaneous coverage of events as
they happen.
Choose action verbs
over forms of be
Organizing
Your Essay
An Argument
What is an argument?
• An argument
involves the
process of
establishing a claim
and then proving it
with the use of
logical reasoning,
examples, and
research
Why is organization important in
building an argument?
• Guides an
audience through
your reasoning
process
• Offers a clear
explanation of
each argued point
• Demonstrates the
credibility of the
writer
Organizing your argument
• Title
• Introduction
– Thesis statement
• Body Paragraphs
– Constructing Topic
Sentences
– Building Main Points
– Countering the
Opposition
• Conclusion
Title--why do you need one?
• Introduces the topic of
discussion to the
audience
• Generates reader
interest in the
argument
Creating a Title
• Try to grab attention by
– offering a provocative
image
– picking up on words or
examples offered in the
body or conclusion of the
paper
– asking a question
• Avoid titles that are too
general or lack character
What is an introduction?
• Acquaints the reader
with the topic and
purpose of the paper
• Generates the
audience’s interest
in the topic
• Offers a plan for the
ensuing argument
Methods for Constructing an
Introduction
• personal anecdote
• example-real or
hypothetical
• question
• quotation
• shocking statistics
• striking image
What is a thesis statement?
• The MOST IMPORTANT
SENTENCE in your paper
• Lets the reader know the
main idea of the paper
• Answers the question: “What
am I trying to prove?”
• Not a factual statement, but a
claim that has to be proven
throughout the paper
Role of the thesis statement
• The thesis statement should
guide your reader through
your argument
• The thesis statement is
generally located in the
introduction of the paper
• A thesis statement may also
be located within the body of
the paper or in the
conclusion, depending upon
the purpose or argument of
the paper
Which thesis statement is the most
effective for an argument about the
need for V-chips in television sets?
• Parents, often too busy to watch television shows
with their families, can monitor their children’s
viewing habits with the aid of the V-chip.
• To help parents monitor their children’s viewing
habits, the V-chip should be a required feature for
television sets sold in the U.S.
• This paper will describe a V-chip and examine the
uses of the V-chip in American-made television
sets.
Body Paragraphs and
Topic Sentences
• Body paragraphs build upon the
claims made in the introductory
paragraph(s)
• Organize with the use of topic
sentences that illustrate the main
idea of each paragraph
• Offering a brief explanation of the
history or recent developments in
your topic within the early body
paragraphs can help the audience to
become familiarized with your topic
and the complexity of the issue
Body Paragraphs
• Paragraphs may be
ordered in several ways,
depending upon the topic
and purpose of your
argument
– General to specific
information
– Most important point to
least important point
– Weakest claim to strongest
claim
Offering a Counterargument
• Addressing the claims of
the opposition is an
important component in
building a convincing
argument
• It demonstrates your
credibility as a writer--you
have researched multiple
sides of the argument and
have come to an informed
decision
Offering a Counterargument
• Counterarguments may
be located at various
locations within your
body paragraphs
• You may choose to
– build each of your main
points as a contrast to
oppositional claims
– offer a counterargument
after you have articulated
your main claims
Counter arguing effectively
• Consider your audience when
you offer your counterargument
• Conceding to some of your
opposition’s concerns can
demonstrate respect for their
opinions
• Remain tactful yet firm
– Using rude or deprecating
language can cause your audience
to reject your position without
carefully considering your claims
Conclusion -- The Big Finale
• Your conclusion should
reemphasize the main
points made in your paper
• You may choose to reiterate
a call to action or speculate
on the future of your topic,
when appropriate
• Avoid raising new claims in
your conclusion