Transcript One Hundred Years of Women’s Movements in Iran

One Hundred Years of Women’s
Movements in Iran
1904-2004
Ali Mostashari
Iranian Studies Group at MIT
The Early Days
(1838-1904)
 In March 1838 American Presbyterian
missionaries opened the first girls’
school in Urumiyah, Azarbaijan.
Religious minorities, mainly
Armenians, attended the school.
Similar schools had opened in Tehran,
Tabriz, Mashhad, Rasht, Hamden and
other cities.
 Muslim girls were barred to attend the
missionary schools by the religious
authorities and public pressure.
 In the 1870s the first Muslim girls
joined the American school in Tehran.
 Babi Women’s Organization headed
by Fatemeh (Tahereh) in 1840s. She
was executed with other Babis in
1852.
The Early Days
(1838-1904)
 In the 1850s, Nasseredin Shah’s
daughter Taj Saltaneh criticizes
veiling and patriarchy in her memoir.
 In its August 1890 issue, Qanoon
(The Law), a monthly published in
London, wrote: "Women make up
half of any nation. No plan of national
significance will move forward unless
women are consulted. The potential
of a woman aware of her human
essence, to serve in the progress of
her country is equivalent to that of
100 men.
Constitutional Revolution Era
(1905-1907)
“Persian women since 1907 have
become almost at a bound the most
progressive, not to say radical, in
the world. That this statement
upsets the ideas of centuries makes
no difference... Having themselves
suffered from a double form of
oppression, political and social...
they broke through some of the
most sacred customs which for
centuries past have bound their sex
in the land of Persia”.
W. Morgan Shuster, April 30, 1912
Constitutional Revolution Era
(1905-1907)
 Woman, particularly in Tehran and
Tabriz became active in the
constitutional struggle in 19041905, boycotting foreign goods and
selling Jewelry to support
constitutionalist forces.
 In 1905, a group of militant women,
headed by Zaynab Pasha, attacked
Kamran Mirza, who was part of the
despotic forces on the street.
Zeinab Pasha organized seven
groups of armed women to parry
government efforts to put down the
rebellion. The seven groups under
her command themselves led other
groups of women.
Constitutional Revolution Era
(1905-1907)
 When government forces intimidated
the bazaar merchants into opening
their shops, Zeinab Pasha and a
group of armed women, wearing the
chador, re- closed the shops, forcing
the strike to go on.
 On January 10, 1906, the shah's
carriage was on its way to the home
of a wealthy aristocrat, when it was
attacked by a multitude of women
marching in the streets, forcing it to
stop. One of the women read a
statement addressed to the king,
saying: "Beware of the day when the
people take away your crown and
your mantle to govern."
Constitutional Revolution Era
(1905-1907)
 With the strong influence from the
clergy, the electoral law of
September 1906 expressly barred
women from the political process.
A group of women from well to do
families objected, but were told
that “ the women’s education and
training should be restricted to
raising children, home economics
and preserving the honor of the
family”
 On January 20, 1907, a women’s
meeting was held in Tehran where
ten resolutions for Women’s rights
and education were adopted.
Pre-Pahlavi Era (1908-1920)
 Opening of Effatiyah School by Mrs.
Safieh Yazdi, the wife of the pro
constitution mujtahid, Mohammed Yazdi
in 1910 encouraged others and more
schools were opened.
 By 1913 there were 9 women’s societies
and 63 girls’ schools in Tehran with close
to 2500 students.
 In 1910, Mrs. Kohal published the
magazine Danesh, thefirst journal
published by a woman in Iran. Mrs.
Ameed Mozayan-al Saltaneh published
Jahan-i Zanan and Shikufah in 1912 and
1913.
Pre-Pahlavi Era (1908-1920)
 In 1911 Ghassem Amin’s book Freedom
of Women is translated from Arabic into
Persian. The renowned Egyptian activist
supported emancipation. Conservative
religious authorities responded harshly.
Mirza Mohammad Sadegh Fhakhr-al
Islam published his own ‘Resaleh’
condemning the book
 In 1914, the Association of the Ladies of
the Homeland was followed by The
Society for the welfare of Iranian Women,
Women of Iran, Union of Women,
Women’s Efforts, and the Council of
Women of the Center. They all played an
active part in politics; organized plays
raised funds for schools, hospitals and
orphanages.
Pre-Pahlavi Era (1908-1920)
 In 1915 the Society of Christian Women
Graduates of Iran was formed, followed
by Jewish Women’s Association they
started organizing, helping and
educating women and children in their
own communities. The communist
members of the Messengers for
Women’s Prosperity celebrated the
International Women’s Day for the first
time in Rasht in 1915.
 Sadigeh Dawlatabadi followed by
Zaban-i Zanan and Zanan-i Iran in
Isfahan and Tehran (1918 & 1919).
Nameh Banouvan and Jahan-i Zanan
were printed in 1920.
Reza Shah’s Era (1921-1940)
 In 1926 Sadigeh Dawlatabadi
attended The International
Women’s Conference in
Paris. On her return she went
public in European attire. In
1928 Majlis ratified the new
dress code.
 Mirza Aboulghasem-i Azad
established the first
emancipation society in 1930
and was supported by Yahya
Dawlatabadi. The first
conference on Muslim
women at the same time
began in Damascus Syria.
Sadigeh Dawlatabadi,
Mostoreh Afshar and Mrs.
Tabatabai represented Iran.
Reza Shah’s Era (1920-1940)
 In 1931 for the first time Majlis
approved a new civil code that gave
women the right to ask for divorce
under certain conditions and the
marriage age was elevated to 15 for
girls and 18 for boys.
 Parvin Etessami publishes poem
“Iranian Women”…
“A woman lives in a cage and dies in a
cage.”
 The Congress of Oriental Women
opened in Tehran in 1932 and paid
respect to the deceased socialist
Muhtaram Eskandari who is
considered one of the first modern
feminists in Iran.
Reza Shah’s Era (1921-1940)
 In 1933 recommended reforms at
Damascus and Tehran conferences
were presented to Majlis and women
demanded emancipation electoral
rights and were refused again. Reza
Shah intervened, in 1934 Ali Asghar-i
Hikmat, the Minister of Education
received orders to establish Kanoun-i
Banouvan and implement reforms.
Hajer Tarbyat was the first chairwomen
and Shams Pahlavi the Royal
appointee. Though controlled by the
state, for the first time women’s
activities were legitimized. The Ladies
Center was not received well by the
socialists and independents. They
opposed royal monopoly and
interference.
Reza Shah’s Era (1921-1940)
 In 1936 Reza Shah, his wife and
daughters attended the graduation
ceremony at the Women’s Teacher
Training College in Tehran. All
women were advised to come
unveiled. Emancipation of women
was officially born. Unveiling was
made compulsory and women
were barred from wearing chador
and scarf in public
 In 1936 the first females entered
Tehran University. Amineh
Pakravan was the first female
lecturer and Dr. Fatimah Sayah the
first woman who became a full
professor in 1938.
Reza Shah’s Era (1921-1940)
From World War II to the Coup (19401951)
 After Reza Shah’s fall, independent
organizations were formed. Safiyeh
Firouz in 1942 formed the National
Women’s Society and the newly
formed Council of Iranian Women in
1944 strongly criticized polygamy.
Tudeh Party Women’s league was the
best organized in this period with a
reported membership of 2,500
women.
 In 1944 Huma Houshmandar
published Our Awakening and in 1949
the women’s league was changed to
Organization of Democratic Women
and branches were opened in all the
major cities.
From World War II to the Coup (19401953)
 Zahra and Taj Eskandari, Iran Arani,
Maryam Firouz, Dr. Khadijeh
Keshavarz, Dr. Ahktar Kambakhsh,
Badri Alavi and Aliyeh Sharmini were
amongst the best known Tudeh
activists. The society was later
changed to Organization of
Progressive Women and in 1951
unsuccessfully lobbied for electoral
rights.
 In 1951, Mehrangiz Dawlatshahi (the
first female Ambassador) formed Rah
Naw and with Safeyeh Firouz founded
the first organization supporting human
rights. The two met with the young
Shah and demanded electoral rights.
Opposition by religious authorities
ended the debate
The 2nd Pahlavi Era (1953-1979)
 Shortly after the 1953 coup, the
Higher Council of Women is
formed and headed by Ashraf
Pahlavi.
 In 1955, Forough Farrokhzad,
the most revered Iranian
female poet, and an idol of
progressive women in Iran
writes “The Sin”.
 In Bahman of 1962 at last
women were given the right to
vote and to be elected. Fatwas
by known figures including
Ayatollah Khomeini declared
the move heretic,
demonstrations followed but
were put down.
The 2nd Pahlavi Era (1953-1979)
 In 1968 the Family Protection Law
was ratified. Divorce was referred
to family courts, gains were made
with respect to divorce laws,
polygamy was limited and
required first wife s’ written
consent. Marriage age for girls
was set at 18 years. Mrs. Parsa
became the first women minister
in Iran.
 In 1975, women gained the right
of guardianship for their children
after their husbands’ death.
 In 1975 Mahnaz Afkhami became
the first minister responsible for
women’s affairs.
The 2nd Pahlavi Era (1953-1979)
 Ali Shariati published the
best seller Fatima is Fatima
and proposes her as a role
model for Muslim Women
Ayatollah Motahari started
the popular series women in
Islam in the secular
magazine Zan-i Ruz and
confirmed Hejab.
 By 1978, 33% of university
students were female with 2
million in the workforce.
190,000 were professionals
with university degrees.
There were 333 women in
the local councils, 22 in
Majlis and 2 in the Senate.
The 2nd Pahlavi Era (1953-1979)
 There were no independent
organizations except the
underground groups
opposing monarchy. Marzieh
Ahmadi Oskouei, Ashraf
Dehghani, Mansoureh
Tavafchian, Fatimah Rezaei
and Mrs Shayegan were
amongst the activists.
 Both secular and Islamic
Women had a major role in
the revolution of 1979.
The Revolutionary Years (1979-1982)
 The Family Protection Law was
abolished by a declaration from Imam
Khomeini’s office in March 1979 and
women were barred from becoming
judges. Women working at
government offices were ordered to
observe the Islamic dress code.
 On March 8, 1979 International
Women’s Day, thousands gathered at
Tehran University. The speakers could
not speak since the microphones were
sabotaged.
The Revolutionary Years (1979-1982)
 In April 1979 the marriage age for girls
was reduced to 13 and married
women were barred from attending
regular schools. By this time many
Independent women’s’ organizations
were formed and all political parties
had their own women’s league.
 Ten’s of women’s magazines were
published, the daily Awakening of
Women was amongst the first
published in Tehran University and
was immediately followed by Equality,
Women in Struggle and Women’s
Path.
The Revolutionary Years (1979-1982)
 The Organization of Iranian
Women, The Women Populace of
Iran, Women’s branch of National
Democratic Front, National Front
and the Association of women
lawyers were amongst the most
active. The last one is the only one
that still exists and it has formed an
extremely powerful lobby in
support of women’s rights.
 In the first Majlis among 217
elected members only 3 were
women.
The Revolutionary Years (1979-1980)
 Azam Taleghani represented the
Women’s Society of Islamic
Revolution and send letters to
Khomeini cautioning the authorities
about compulsory veiling.
 The birthday of Fatima, Prophets’
daughter was announced National
Women’s Day. In 1980 Azam
Taleghani completely wrapped in
Islamic attire represented Iran in
United Nations Conference on Women
in Thailand.
 The veil is made compulsory, first for
governmental offices, and then for the
entire country. Leftist demonstrations
against the veil meet with violence.
The Revolutionary Years (1979-1980)
 Azam Taleghani represented the
Women’s Society of Islamic
Revolution and send letters to
Khomeini cautioning the authorities
about compulsory veiling.
 The birthday of Fatima, Prophets’
daughter was announced National
Women’s Day. In 1980 Azam
Taleghani completely wrapped in
Islamic attire represented Iran in
United Nations Conference on Women
in Thailand.
 The veil is made compulsory, first for
governmental offices, and then for the
entire country. Leftist demonstrations
against the veil meet with violence.
Iran at War (1981-86)
 Islamic women militias are trained
for homeland defense
 Crackdown on Marxist, Nationalist
and Liberal political groups
removes the last set of secular
women’s organizations from the
scene.
 Thousands of female political
activists arrested. Hundreds of
them are executed in prisons along
with men. Reports of pre-execution
rapes by prison guards are filed by
Amnesty International.
 Pro-government women charities
help raise money and supply goods
for the war effort.
The Reconstruction Years (1988-1996)
 The magazine Zanan published in 1992
systematically criticized the legal code.
They argued gender equality was Islamic
but religious literature is misread and
misappropriated by misogynist interest
oriented males. Secular activists,
Mehrangiz-i Kar, Shahla Lahiji and the
Muslim Shahla Sherkat the editor of
Zanan lead the debate on women’s
rights.
 Faezeh Hashemi, the daughter of one of
Iran’s most influential ruling clerics,
initiated Asian games for Muslim women
in 1993.
The Reconstruction Years (1988-1996)
 Faezeh Hashemi is attacked by the
hardliners for being outspoken,
wearing blue jeans and riding bicycles.
In a landslide victory she was elected
in the 5th Majlis with the highest
number of votes in Tehran. The socalled “Muslim feminism” had emerged
in Iran.
 By the late 1990s, the National Muslim
Women’s League, sponsored and
financed by the government became a
powerful umbrella organization
providing support and networking for
sixty registered women’s
organizations.
Reform Years (1997-2003)
 Zanan Magazine played a major role
in the Presidential elections, which
saw Khatami elected in 1997.
 Although female vote for Presdient
Khatami was in the high 80
percentile in that election, few
changes occurred in women’s
situations. Votes for Khatami were
unsurprisingly far lower in the 2001
elections.
 The reformist parliament passed
some important laws for women’s
rights in divorce cases, which were
vetoed as un-Islamic by the
Guardian council.
Reform Years (1997-2003)
 With the advent of IT, Weblogs have
been used extensively to promote
feminist ideas. Women also discuss
issues of sexuality and criticize the
patriarchal structure far more openly
in their Weblogs, which are
considered the only uncensored
media outlets in Iran.
 Female students participate actively
in the pro-democracy rallies during
1998 and 1999.
 Female students outpace male
students in undergraduate university
admissions in the National University
Entrance Examinations.
The Present
 Shirin Ebadi, a long-time women’s
rights activist, became the Nobel
laureate for Peace in 2003
 More than 32 Women-only NGOs
perform outstanding service in the
relief efforts in the Bam earthquake.
 Women’s group have strongly
protested the death sentence of
Afsaneh Nowroozi, an Iranian
woman who killed a man in selfdefense. The sentence is currently
suspended.
The Present
 By 2004, 64% of the students
entering universities were female
and the worsening economic
situation has forced millions of
women to enter the workforce.
 A group of several hundred Iranian
female activists staged a rally on
March 8, 2004 to mark International
Women's Day, despite warnings from
authorities that the gathering was
illegal.
 Whichever direction the future of Iran
will take, women will be the primary
driving force for change.
References
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Abbas Amanat (translator), Crowing Anguish: Memoirs of a
Persian Princess from the Harem to Modernity 1884-1914.
Author: Taj al-Saltana. Washington: Mage 1993
Masoumeh Price, A Brief History of Iranian Women, Iranian
Online Magazine, March 3, 2000
William Morgan Shuster, The Strangling of Persia,
(Washington, D.C.: Mage Publishers, 1987
Ramesh Sephrrad, Women’s role in popular movements
during Qajar dynasty, National Committee of Women for
Democratic Iran Publications
Abdul-Hossein Nahid, Zanan-e Iran dar Jonbesh-e Mashruteh
(Iranian Women in the Constitutional Movement), Germany,
Navid Publications, 1989
Hamed Shahidian“The Iranian Left and the ‘Woman Question’
in the Revolution of 1978-79,” in IJMES Vol. 26 no. 2, 223-247.
Ziba Mirhosseini, Islam and Gender: The Religious Debate in
Contemporary Iran. Princeton, 1999.