The Cold War Foreign & Domestic 1945- Present

Dwight D. Eisenhower

  Foreign Policy    Expanded NATO to include West Germany (1955) Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (1954) Central Treaty Organization (1959) Arms limitation  “Open Skies” proposal, 1955  Khrushchev

Focus of Cold War shifted to Third World Use of CIA covert action around the world

 

Latin America

     Talked of supporting democracy Regularly supported dictatorial regimes so long as they accepted U.S. investment Caused resentment among Latin Americans Over throw of Arbenz in Guatemala in 1954  Arbenz was popularly elected, then nationalized the land  United Fruit Company and the Dulles brothers Cuba situation demonstrated anti-American sentiment

Egypt

  Rise of Gamal Abdel Nasser  Call for Arab nationalism and “positive neutralism” Nationalization of Suez Canal, 1956   Caused U.S. rift with Britain Loss of U.S. prestige and Power in Middle east

Focus of Cold War shifted to Third World Use of CIA covert action around the world

 

Middle East

 Eisenhower Doctrine, 1957    Defense of Middle Eastern countries against “international communism” Followed up with intervention in Lebanon and Jordan Overthrow of Mossadeq in Iran, placing Reza Shah Pahlavi

Vietnam

   Drive for independence under way after World War II  French decided to withdraw in 1954 { Dien Bien Phu} Geneva Peace Accords   Temporary division in North and South Vietnam Eventual elections for reunification Administration belief in “domino theory”   Provided aid to government in south Vietnam Feared the loss of another Asian nation to communism

 

The Fight Against Discrimination

Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka (1954)  School segregation violated constitutional guarantee of equal protection under the law   Implied that all segregated public facilities were unconstitutional Race could no longer be treated as simply a regional issue   South becoming more like rest of the country  Racial composition of rest of country becoming more like South Segregationists promised “massive resistance” to Brown  Violence, vigilantism, terror became rampant Montgomery bus boycott, 1955-56

The Fight Against Discrimination (cont.)

    Vaulted Reverend Martin Luther King, Jr. into national prominence Spurred creation of Southern Christian Leadership Conference Civil Rights Act of 1957  procedure to expedite lawsuits by African Americans who claimed their voting rights had been violated  Created permanent Civil Rights Commission to hear complaints Politics of civil rights  Southern Democrats in Congress tried to block real action on civil rights  Southern states defied Brown order on school desegregation  Eisenhower forced to act in Little Rock crisis, 1957

   

John F. Kennedy Foreign Policy

Dramatic Initiatives

  Peace Corps Alliance for Progress

Cuba

 Bay of Pigs, April 1961   Operation Mongoose- CIA plan to overthrow Castro in Cuba Cuban Missile Crisis, October 1962

Berlin

 Berlin Wall constructed, August 1961

Southeast Asia

   Goal to build South Vietnam into a viable non-Communist state Test case for flexible response Coup against Ngo Dinh Diem, November 1963

Kennedy in Iraq

 In 1963, the Kennedy administration backed a coup against the government of Iraq headed by General Abdel Karim Kassem, who five years earlier had deposed the Western-allied Iraqi monarchy. The CIA helped the new Baath Party government led by Abdul Salam Arif in ridding the country of suspected leftists and Communists. In a Baathist bloodbath, the government used lists of suspected Communists and other leftists provided by the CIA, to systematically murder untold numbers of Iraq's educated elite — killings in which Saddam Hussein himself is said to have participated.

 

Kennedy’s Domestic Policy

General policymaking goals  Tax cuts for everyone, special cuts for corporations   Higher minimum wage and urban renewal Crusade against organized crime (Robert Kennedy) Civil Rights  Concerned about Southern conservatives      Initially, did nothing on civil rights front Sit-in movement, early 1960 Freedom rides, 1961  Forced to send marshals to protect riders Universities of Mississippi and Alabama  Forced to intervene to protect black students Executive order banning segregation in public housing, November 1952



Kennedy’s Domestic Policy (cont.)

 Moderate civil rights bill, February 1963  Called to action by violence in Birmingham, Spring of 1963  Support for stronger civil rights bill  March on Washington, August 1963 Women’s issues   Presidential Commission on the Status of women  Documented discrimination in employment opportunities and wages Equal Pay Act of 1963

LBJ’s Foreign Policy

 Tonkin Gulf Resolution    Stemmed from confusing events in August, 1964  Became justification for concerted U.S. involvement Resolution in Congress  “All necessary measures to repel armed attack”  Johnson used as tantamount to congressional declaration of war Debate over extent of American involvement within administration

LBJ’s Domestic Policy

 Civil Rights  Civil Rights Act of 1964   Equal Employment Opportunity Commission Prohibited racial discrimination in public accommodations associated with interstate commerce   Mississippi Freedom Summer Freedom Democratic Party



Great Society

Fulfillment of dreams of Johnson’s Democratic predecessors  Medical care for the elderly and low-income citizens (Medicare and Medicaid)  Created Department of Housing and Urban development  Voting Rights Act of 1965  Heartened Johnson’s supporters and appalled his critics  Goal was to help people fight their own way out of economic distress

    

Evaluating the Great society

Rekindled debates about proper role of national government Raised expectations that could not be met Conservatives have been unrelentingly critical Leftists lamented failure to challenge the prevailing distribution of political power and wealth in order to reduce poverty Agreement that Great Society left its mark   First significant outlay of federal dollars for social programs since New Deal Significantly expanded reach of welfare state

   

From Civil Rights to Black Power

Watts riots, 1965 Malcolm X and Black Power        Initially affiliated with Nation of Islam Integration was unworkable Self-defense “By any means necessary” Renewed pride in African-American heritage Vigorous efforts at community reconstruction Organized Organization of Afro-American Unity after breaking with Nation of Islam Murdered in 1965 by enemies of Nation of Islam Black Panthers  Criticized slow pace of civil rights litigation  Preached confrontation and self-defense Civil Rights Act of 1968   Fair housing provision watered down to protect landlords and real estate agents Federal offense to cross state lines in order to incite a “riot”  Directly aimed at Black Panthers



Richard Millhouse Nixon

Nixon’s Economic Program   Two decades of economic growth came to an end during Nixon presidency Inherited high levels of domestic spending, and expensive war in Vietnam, and the deteriorating, but still favorable balance of trade    Soaring unemployment and price inflation  What economists came to call “stagflation” Nation ran its first trade deficit of the twentieth century in 1971 New Economy policy   90 day freeze on wages and prices Subsequent government monitoring to detect excessive increases in either

Nixon’s Social Policy

     Family Assistance Plan      Abolish other welfare programs, including AFDC Institute a guaranteed annual income for all families End Post-New Deal system of aid to those in particular circumstances Provide aid to everyone Not implemented New federalism plan to return federal tax money to the states in the form of black grants with virtually no restrictions Supplementary Social Security Insurance for the elderly, blind, and disabled Gradual expansion of Medicare and Medicaid Social Security payments indexed to inflation in 1972

Foreign Policy Under Nixon

   Key Advisor was Henry Kissinger, national security advisor Détente as major foreign policy goal   Strategic Arms Limitation Talks with Soviet Union Opening toward China Vietamization    Withdrawal of U.S. troops Stepping up of air war and intensifying diplomatic efforts to reach settlement Nixon Doctrine   U.s. Military assistance to anticommunist government in Asia Nations left to provide their own military forces

Foreign Policy Under Nixon (cont.)

   New operations in South  Withdraw U.S. troops but not accept compromise or defeat Adhered to bombing halt over North Incursion into neutral Cambodia  Spurred opposition at home   Kent State and Jackson State Contributed top rise of Khmer Rouge

End of U.S. involvement in Vietnam

       Secret war protected in Laos and Cambodia after 1970 Peace talks in Paris proceeded as war was actually expanding Communists within 30 miles of Saigon in the Spring of 1972  Nixon responded with resumption of bombing and mining of harbors in North Cease-fire announced weeks before 1972 election After election, U.S. firepower increased dramatically  Christmas bombing Paris Peace Accords, 1973  Withdrawal of U.S. troops South Vietnamese discontinued to fight  Collapsed in April 1973

Watergate

 Caused collapse of Nixon’s presidency stemmed from Nixon’s deep mistrust for nearly everyone in Washington    Established “plumbers” unit to protect administration from “enemies”   Funded by illegal campaign contributions Broke into Democratic Party’s headquarters during 1972 re-election campaign   Irony is that Nixon won election handily and didn’t need to resort to “dirty tricks” to win Administration was involved but denied it and instituted cover up instead The press, Congress, and the federal judiciary, all began searching for the truth Eventually bits of the truth began trickling out, and Nixon was implicated in both the original break in and in the cover up

   

Watergate (cont.)

Nixon continued to deny involvement, even after discovery of a secret White House taping system that could implicate him if the tapes were surrendered to the courts  Supreme Court ruled unanimously in U.S.v. Nixon that he had to give them up House Judiciary Committee voted three articles of impeachment  Obstruction of Justice, violation of constitutional liberties, refusal to produce evidenced requested during the impeachment process In the end, Nixon chose to resign rather than face trial by the senate   Left office in disgrace on August 9, 1974, succeeded by Gerald Ford Received an unconditional pardon by Ford Public knowledge and understanding of Watergate not high today

Jimmy Carter

     Social Activism: Women’s Issues Old ideas of domesticity clashed with realities women found themselves in Gender issues came to pervade civil rights and antiwar movements  Women often found traditional sexism among male leaders “Consciousness raising” sessions during 1970s  Intertwining of political and personal power issues Women’s movement became highly diverse   Pursued variety of goals Utilized variety of strategies

Social Activism: Sexual Politics

    Gender/sexuality debates divided over issues involving gays and lesbians Stonewall Inn, 1969  Turning point for gay rights movement AIDS crisis   Medical and political issue’ Early research was insignificant Gays in the military controversy, 1992  “Don’t ask, don’t tell” policy

  

Carter’s Domestic Policy

Welfare initiatives   Requested additional cash assistance and more jobs for the needy Failed to win congressional approval Energy initiatives   Ambitious energy program, pursued unilaterally  Decrease reliance on foreign oil and natural gas     Expand domestic energy production Discourage gasoline use through new taxes Encourage energy-saving measures to foster conservatism Promote non-Petroleum energy sources Congress rejected Economic initiatives    Ambitious economic agenda    Lower unemployment and inflation Stimulate greater economic growth Balance federal budget Failed to accomplish any of his goals Economic crisis affected cities and urban areas as well

     

Jimmy Carter’s Foreign Policies

Amnesty for Vietnam War draft resisters Panama Canal treaties Camp David peace accords’ Concern for human rights  Best known feature of Carter’s foreign policy   Helped to trigger trend toward democratization in 1980s and 1990s Immediate impact was ambiguous Crisis in Iran, November 1979   Hostage situation at U.S. Embassy in Tehran Despite constant attention, Carter unable to resolve the situation Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, December 1979  Series of ineffectual, non-Military responses

The New Right

    Neo-Conservatives and new conservative institutions    American Enterprise Institute Heritage Foundation Committee on the Present Danger The New Religious Right  Fundamentalist and evangelical support The Conservative political agenda     National Conservative Political Action committee (NCPAC) Conservative caucus Committee for the Survival of a Free Congress Moral Majority The New Religious Right and the media  Cable television reached huge,receptive audiences

  

Ronald Reagan’s Domestic Policy

Pursuing supply-side economics    Justified tax cuts for wealthy by saying they would stimulate growth Period of non-inflationary growth, 1982-1986 Unemployment remained high High government spending resulted huge federal deficits  Borrowed abroad and piled up largest foreign debt in the world Economic benefits unevenly distributed throughout society  “Underclass” especially hurt

    

Regan’s Foreign Policy

Renewed Cold War   Dramatic increased in defense spending Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) or Star Wars International Offensive abroad   Funded various conservative groups abroad Radio Mart to Cuba CIA activities   Aid to anti-Communist forces in Afghanistan Funding for contras in Nicaragua General funding for opposition movements in countries aligned with the soviet Union Willingness to use U.S. Military power   Lebanon, 1982 Grenada, 1983

Iran-Contra Affair

      U.S. aid for contras blocked by Democratic-controlled Congress in 1984- Bolland Amendment  Circumvent by having wealthy conservatives and other countries provide aid Against backdrop of violence and kidnappings of Americans and other westerners in Middle East Administration sold arms to Iran in exchange for help in winning release of captives  Flew in face of stated policy of not rewarding captors Then funneled profits to contras as way of getting around congressional ban Caused public outcry and violation of Bolland Amendment Investigators unable to paint as serious constitutional crisis  Oliver North

US – Soviet Relations

 Thaw in U.S. Soviet relations after 1985   Role of Mikhail Gorbachev  “Glasnost” and “perestroika”  Loosened Moscow’s grip on Soviet Empire Reykjavik summit, October 1986  Reagan plan for wholesale ban on nuclear weapons  SALT II not ratified

George HW Bush Persian Gulf War

       Iraqi invasion of Kuwait, August 1990 Operation “Desert Shield:” UN action against Iraq Launched military offensive in January 1991  Stopped short of removing Saddam Hussein, something the UN had not authorized Temporarily boosted Bush’s popularity Administration not very successful in setting post-Cold war diplomatic goals Mixed foreign policy legacy

End of Cold War

     Began in Poland in 1989 One by one, nations of Eastern Europe overthrew their Communist governments Provinces that comprised the Soviet Union also declared independence Global economy  Administration pushed for economic liberalization Redefinition of “national Security”   Help to bring democracy to Nicaragua, El Salvador, Guatemala Overthrow of Manuel Noriega in Panama, December 19989