Transcript Training versus Learning - Uni

27.11.2001
Universität Hildesheim
Institut für Angewandte Sprachwissenschaft
Fachbereich III – Sprachen und Technik
Training vs Learning
Different types and methods
Lecturer:
Prof. Dr. Jürgen Beneke
Students:
Dirk Duppré,
Björn Nahler
Timo Winkelbach
Training vs Learning
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Introduction
Learning
2.1 Definition
2.2 Learning Theories
2.3 Learning Styles
Training
3.1 The use of training
3.2 Definition
3.3 Methods of intercultural training (examples)
The effect and the effectiveness of cross-cultural training
(CCT)
4.1 Social Learning Theory and Cross-Cultural Training
4.2 Rehearsal
27.11.2001 Dirk Duppré
Björn Nahler
Timo Winkelbach
Training vs Learning
Definition of learning
In your opinion, how could
learning be defined ?
Public opinion:
In everyday language the term of learning is often connected with school
and most people think of it as a mere acquisition of knowledge or abilities.
27.11.2001 Dirk Duppré
Björn Nahler
Timo Winkelbach
Training vs Learning
Definition according to
Webster‘s Dictionary
learning, n.
1. knowledge acquired by systematic study in
any field or fields of scholarly application.
2. the act or process of acquiring knowledge
or skill.
3. Psychol. the modification of behavior
through practice, training, or experience.
27.11.2001 Dirk Duppré
Björn Nahler
Timo Winkelbach
Training vs Learning
Definition of learning
Scientific view:
In general, learning can be
defined as a relatively
permanent change in
behaviour due to experience.
27.11.2001 Dirk Duppré
Björn Nahler
Timo Winkelbach
Training vs Learning
Perspectives on learning
• Behavioural :
Learning must be observable change in
behaviour
• Cognitive :
Learning is an internal processs and cannot be
observed directly
27.11.2001 Dirk Duppré
Björn Nahler
Timo Winkelbach
Training vs Learning
Learning Theories
• Classical Conditioning Pavlov
• Operant Conditioning Thorndike/Skinner
• Social learning theory Bandura
in particular observational learning
• Cognitive Learning Köhler / Tolman
27.11.2001 Dirk Duppré
Björn Nahler
Timo Winkelbach
Training vs Learning
Classical Conditioning
(Pavlov)
• Refers to the process of learning
associations between stimuli
• Involves reflexive (automatic)
behaviours (innate reflexes)
most well-known example: salivation reflex of dogs
27.11.2001 Dirk Duppré
Björn Nahler
Timo Winkelbach
Training vs Learning
Operant Conditioning
(Skinner)
We behave and receive feedback from our
environment.
• Every individual acts deliberately
• Reinforcement (positive vs negative)
examples: praise and rewards
• Punishment (introduction of an aversive stimulus after
responding)
• Shaping
27.11.2001 Dirk Duppré
Björn Nahler
Timo Winkelbach
Training vs Learning
Observational learning
(Bandura)
Learning occurs through observation of
others (models).
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Attention
Retention
Reproduction
Motivation and reinforcement
27.11.2001 Dirk Duppré
Björn Nahler
Timo Winkelbach
Training vs Learning
Cognitive Learning
(Köhler/Tolman)
• Trial-and-error may be replaced by a sudden
understanding (insight)
• Latent Learning
27.11.2001 Dirk Duppré
Björn Nahler
Timo Winkelbach
Training vs Learning
Learning Styles
The way how an individual takes in information most effectively.
• Visual learners (about 65% of the population)
• Auditory learners (about 30% of the population)
• Kinesthetic learners (about 5% of the population)
No-one uses one of the styles exclusively, and there is usually
significant overlap in learning styles.
27.11.2001 Dirk Duppré
Björn Nahler
Timo Winkelbach
Training vs Learning
Definition of training according
to Webster`s Dictionary
train \tran\ (verb) was first used to describe someone
who was betraying another, as in "traitor"--scheming or
tricking. Another origin cited its use as a noun which
meant "something that is trailed or dragged behind,"
such as the train of a wedding gown.
It is also used as a verb in reference to what is "done to"
animals in captivity. In companies, it refers to what is
done to employees
to prepare them--to make them fit, qualified or proficient
to work in the position they were hired into.
27.11.2001 Dirk Duppré
Björn Nahler
Timo Winkelbach
Training vs Learning
Some important facts
• 70 per cent of the US expatriates are sent overseas without
any cross-cultural training
• 90 per cent of their families are sent overseas without any cross
cultural trainings
• 16- 40 per cent of all expatriate managers sent on foreign
assignments return before they are supposed to
All results are based on studies by Baker and Ivancevich (1971), Black and Stephens
(!988/89), Dunbar and Ehrlich (1986), Runzheimer (1984), Tung (1981)
27.11.2001 Dirk Duppré
Björn Nahler
Timo Winkelbach
Training vs Learning
Who needs intercultural
training ?
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People, who work in foreign countries (Manager, soldiers, councillors,
experts or peacecorps)
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People, who have to stay in a foreign country for personal reasons
(family members or tourists)
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People who take part in exchange (exchange with youths, students,
artists, scientists)
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People who take care of foreigners in their own country (students,
migrants, tourists)
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People who work for an international operating company (multinational
companies, international organisations, religious organisations)
27.11.2001 Dirk Duppré
Björn Nahler
Timo Winkelbach
Training vs Learning
Methods of intercultural
training
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Simulations (Robert Alley)
Role-playing (Paul Barnack)
Case Studies (Robert Ross / Henry Holmes / Stephen Guild)
The Cultural Assimilator (Henry Holmes / Stephen Guild)
• Critical Incidents (Paul Barnack)
• Area Studies (Robert Kohls)
27.11.2001 Dirk Duppré
Björn Nahler
Timo Winkelbach
Training vs Learning
What is the case study method ?
Henry Holmes and Stephen Guild
• description of a specific situation as close to reality as possible
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focus is on experiences where action/decision can be made
discussion on this actual, multi-faceted situation
emphasises the particular rather than the general as much as possible
participants have to feel that they have had the experience that the case study
describes
therefore it must be of interest so that the student can “get into it”
The reader do the decision-making. (no observers or spectators: participants have to
feel that they have had the experience that the case study describes in the group)
the decision-making process can be analysed itself as the group moves toward
solution
ideally, the case study method gets the participant in the habit of making decisions
27.11.2001 Dirk Duppré
Björn Nahler
Timo Winkelbach
Training vs Learning
Cultural assimilator
A special form of the case study method is the cultural
assimilator. There are 2 important points that are different
to normal case studies:
• No need for own conclusions. These are given by the
author of the text.
• After this discussion, the participants get the right answer.
27.11.2001 Dirk Duppré
Björn Nahler
Timo Winkelbach
Training vs Learning
Example
An Arab student asked his co-workers on his lab assistantship
if they wanted to go to lunch with him at the student union.
They agreed, adding that it was time to eat, and they all
chatted as they went to the Union where they got in line at the
cafeteria. When they reached the cashier’s station, the Arab
student, who was first in line, paid for all of them. When the
group got to their table, his co-workers insisted on giving the
Arab student the money for their lunches. The Arab refused it,
but the Americans insisted; and the one sitting beside him
swept the money off the table and dumped it into the foreign
student’s jacket pocket. Later, the Americans commented that
the Arab student had been unusually quiet and reserved while
he ate lunch.
27.11.2001 Dirk Duppré
Björn Nahler
Timo Winkelbach
Training vs Learning
If the Americans had analysed this incident correctly they probably would settle on
which one of the following explanations for the Arab’s behaviour during lunch?
1. The Arab student must have had an upset stomach.
2. It is the Arab custom not to talk during their meals.
3. The Arab student had wanted to pay for their lunches and he was hurt that they
wouldn’t let him.
4. The Arab student felt the Americans thought he was too poor to pay.
5. When he was away from the lab, the Arab had nothing to make conversation
about.
27.11.2001 Dirk Duppré
Björn Nahler
Timo Winkelbach
Training vs Learning
Simulations
Special form: roleplays
Role-playing as a training technique can accomplish or
facilitate the following objectives:
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to provide practice in intercultural communication skills
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to provide practise in the execution of individual actions or solutions
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to explore situations in which the reactions and feelings of individuals are
involved
to stimulate participation and involvement
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to develop a better understanding of the points of view of others
27.11.2001 Dirk Duppré
Björn Nahler
Timo Winkelbach
Training vs Learning
Example
Two groups of people – let’s call them majorits and minorits – come together because of
the negotiation for the selling of a house. Both come from different cultures and have
their own characteristics. Here there are 5 differences:
Majorits
Minorits
• straight and say directly what
they want
• ”yes” means “I agree and ”no”
I disagree”
• Being honest is more important
than being polite
• All members of are equal
members and have the right to
say what they are thinking
• love to talk about things before they start to
negotiate.
• ”yes” means ”I understand what you saying
and in principal they don’t say ”no”, but use
another way to describe this.
• being polite is more important than being
honest.
• only one spokesman that reflects the points of
view of his group’s members
• men and women are equal
• only men are allowed to speak
27.11.2001 Dirk Duppré
Björn Nahler
Timo Winkelbach
Training vs Learning
The effects of cross-cultural
training on management and work
The assumption is that good management is good managment, and therefore, an
effective manager in New York or Los Angeles will do fine in Hong Kong or Tokyo
(Miller 1973)
USA
Japan
• The setting is clear and realistic
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Difficult goals with specific time-lines
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Individuals who achieve the goals
on time are rewarded
People will be motivated if they
believe to know what is expected,
believe they can achieve the goal and
believe they will be rewarded
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27.11.2001 Dirk Duppré
Björn Nahler
Timo Winkelbach
• Goal specificity is contrary to
cultural norms
• The rewarding of an idividual for
personal achievement can often result
in decreased motivation
• Individuals would not want to
stand out from or above the
group
Training vs Learning
The effectiveness of crosscultural-training (CCT) (Black and
Mendenhall, 1990)
• Cross-cultural skill development
• 9 out of 10 studies found a positive relationship between CCT
and self-confidence concerning one‘s ability to function
effectively in cross-cultural situations
• 19 out of 19 studies found a positive relationship between CCT
and increased cross-cultural relational skills
• 16 out of 16 studies found a positive relationsship between CCT
and cross-cultural perceptions
27.11.2001 Dirk Duppré
Björn Nahler
Timo Winkelbach
Training vs Learning
• Cross-cultural adjustment
• 9 out of 9 studies found a positive relationship between CCT and
cross-cultural adjustment
• Job performance
• 11 out of 15 studies found a positive relationsship between CCT
and job performance in the cross-cultural situations
27.11.2001 Dirk Duppré
Björn Nahler
Timo Winkelbach
Training vs Learning
Discussion
What comes first, training or learning ?
27.11.2001 Dirk Duppré
Björn Nahler
Timo Winkelbach
Training vs Learning
Training and learning in symbiosis
Social Learning Theory and Cross-cultural Training
Based on the framework of the Social Learning Theory (SLT) there are two models
which have to be realized as a model by the participants of a cross-cultural training
(CCT).
symbolic
participative
• Learner or trainee observes
modeled behaviours
- Hearing it and translating the
verbal into images in his mind (e.g.
CCT based on books or lectures)
- Seeing visually the modeled behaviour
that means the trainee sees and retains
a cognitive image because he/she is
more involved (e.g. CCT based on
films or demonstrations)
27.11.2001 Dirk Duppré
Björn Nahler
Timo Winkelbach
• Learner or trainee takes part in
modeled behaviours
- Verbal participation: the trainee
describes verbally what he/she would
do (e.g. CCT based on case studies or
cultural assimilators)
- Physical participation: the trainee
takes physically part in modeled
behaviours (e.g. CCT based on field
trips or roleplays), that means he/she
is cognitively more involved
Training vs Learning
How to keep the learned or
trained modeled behaviours in
your mind
Solution:
Rehearsal
Cognitive Rehearsal
e.g.:You imagine how you eat
with chop sticks
Behavioural Rehearsal
e.g.:imagining and actually eating
with chop sticks
Actually doing it is a way how you can
transform your knowledge into skills !
(learning by doing)
27.11.2001 Dirk Duppré
Björn Nahler
Timo Winkelbach
Training vs Learning
Efficiency of different training methods
High
Experiential
Simulations
Field Trips
Role Plays
Interactive Language Training
Analytical
Training
Rigor
Sensitivity Training
Culture Assimilators
Case Studies
Classroom Language Training
Factual
Low
Books
Lectures
Area Briefings
27.11.2001 Dirk Duppré
Björn Nahler
Timo Winkelbach
Training vs Learning