Transcript Texas Institute for Measurement, Evaluation, and Statistics

Book 3:
Use of Accommodations in
Large-Scale Assessments
Practical Guidelines for the Education of
English Language Learners
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Practical Guidelines for the Education of
English Language Learners
Authors
David J. Francis, Mabel Rivera
Center on Instruction English Language Learners Strand
Texas Institute for Measurement, Evaluation, and Statistics
University of Houston
Nonie K. Lesaux, Michael J. Kieffer
Graduate School of Education
Harvard University
Héctor Rivera
Center on Instruction English Language Learners Strand
Texas Institute for Measurement, Evaluation, and Statistics
University of Houston
Practical Guidelines for the Education of
English Language Learners
Research-based Recommendations for Instruction and
Academic Interventions
Research-based Recommendations for Serving Adolescent
Newcomers
Research-based Recommendations for the Use of
Accommodations in Large-scale Assessments
Book 3: Use of Accommodations in
Large-Scale Assessments
Foreword
Overview
Accommodations and Review of State
Policies
Conceptual Framework
Use of Accommodations
Meta-Analysis on Effectiveness of
Accommodations in Assessment
Selected studies for analysis
Methods
Results
Conclusions
Technical Appendices
Seminal Research Reviews
Rivera, C., Collum, E., Shafner Willner, L., & Sia, J. K. (2006). An
analysis of state assessment policies regarding the accommodation of
English language learners. In C. Rivera and E. Collum (Eds.), State
assessment policy and practice for English language learners: A
national perspective (pp. 1-173). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Abedi, J., Hofstetter, C., & Lord, C. (2004). Assessment accommodations
for English language learners: Implications for policy-based empirical
research. Review of Educational Research, 74(1), 1-28.
Sireci, S., Li, S., & Scarpati, S. (2003). The effect of test accommodation
on test performance: A review of the literature (Research Report No.
495). Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts School of Education,
Center for Educational Assessment.
Demographics
Who are
English Language Learners?
• National-origin-minority students with
•
•
•
limited proficiency of English;
Heterogeneous;
Membership defined by limited proficiency
in English language use, which directly
affects learning and assessment;
Membership is expected to be temporary.
Demographics
Large population
One of the fastestgrowing groups
among school-aged
children in U.S.
More than 9 million
students, roughly 5.5
million of whom are
classified as Limited
English Proficient
(LEP)
Spanish
predominant
More than 400
different home
languages; Spanish
predominant (70%)
Largest growth
Largest and fastest
growing ELL groups:
•Students who
immigrated before
Kindergarten
• U.S. born children
of immigrants
By 2015, second-generation children of immigrants
are expected to be 30% of the school-aged population
Learning challenges
ELLs face unique learning challenges:
•
to develop the content-related knowledge and
skills defined by state standards;
•
•
•
while simultaneously acquiring a second (or third)
language ;
at a time when their first language is not fully
developed (e.g., young children);
to demonstrate their learning on assessments in
English, their second language.
ELL Performance Outcomes
•
Some states have begun to look at the
performance of ELLs on state tests after they have
gained proficiency in English.
• Although some reclassified ELLs do well, many
students who have lost the formal LEP designation
continue to struggle with:
• academic text;
• content-area knowledge; and
• oral language skills.
Current Policy
and
Academic Achievement
English Language Learners
and the No Child Left Behind Act
ELLs present unique challenges to:
• Teachers,
• Administrators,
• Assessment systems, and
• Accountability systems.
English Language Learners
and the No Child Left Behind Act
NCLB:
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High standards of learning and instruction for all
students;
English Language Learners one of five areas of
concentration to advance student achievement;
Increased awareness of the academic needs and
achievement of ELLs;
Schools, districts, and states held accountable for
teaching English and content knowledge to ELLs.
English Language Learners
and the No Child Left Behind Act
Under NCLB, state education agencies are
held accountable for the progress of ELLs
in two ways:
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•
Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP) expectations
for reading and mathematics under Title I, and
Annual Measurable Achievement Objectives
(AMAO) under Title III, demonstrating
satisfactory progress in learning English and
attaining English proficiency.
Academic Performance Indicators for ELLs
On 4th grade National Assessment of Educational
Progress (NAEP), ELLs were:
•
•
only1/4 as likely to score proficient or above in Reading as
their native English speaking peers, and
only 1/3 as likely to score proficient or above in Math as
their native English-speaking peers.
Compared with native English-speaking peers, ELLs
with a formal LEP designation are less likely to score
“proficient” on state tests.
ELLs Taking Large-Scale
Assessments:
Participation and Valid
Assessment
ELL Participation Rates
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NCLB recognizes the importance of high participation to gain
information about achievement and proficiency rates for this
subgroup of learners.
ELLs are participating in large-scale assessments at much
higher rates than in the past.
This raises awareness of the academic needs and academic
achievement of ELLs as a distinct population.
Assessment results can be vital indicators of school
performance and efficacy in serving specific subgroups.
ELLs & Large-Scale Assessments
•
•
It is not enough simply to have ELLs participate in
large-scale assessments; participation must lead to
valid inferences about their achievement and the
effectiveness of educational programming.
Valid assessments are needed to inform instruction
and program design: They provide detailed
knowledge of ELL students’ weaknesses and
strengths.
Large-Scale Assessments Used with ELLs
• National Assessment of Educational Progress
(NAEP);
• State assessments of academic content;
• State assessments of language proficiency.
NAEP Assessment
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•
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The only “nationally representative and continuing
assessment” of subject area knowledge of U.S.
students;
Does not score individual students or schools, but
now allows some state-by-state comparison;
NCLB requires some schools to participate in NAEP
grade 4 and 8 reading and math.
(National Center for Educational Statistics, 2007)
State Assessments of Language Proficiency
• NCLB requires annual assessment of ELLs’ English language
•
proficiency with assessments aligned to K-12 ELP
standards. These must include the 4 language domains:
• Speaking and listening;
• Reading and writing.
State ELP standards must align to the academic content
standards and the challenging academic achievement
standards set by the state for all students.
(General Accounting Office, 2006)
State Assessments of Academic Content
• Based on federally-mandated, state-defined
•
standards;
Selected or developed by each state, with
guidance from the U.S. Department of
Education, Office of Elementary and
Secondary Education.
(August & Piche, 2002; General Accounting Office, 2006)
Content Knowledge & Language Proficiency
• ELLs must direct more cognitive resources to processing the
•
•
language of the test compared with fully English proficient
students.
Assessments with the most linguistically challenging content
show the largest performance gaps between ELLs and native
English speakers. This is true for all domains, including math.
ELLs may also lack background knowledge that is central to
understanding content, but may not be related to actual content
knowledge.
Effective accommodations allow students to demonstrate their knowledge of a
concept by minimizing language obstacles without invalidating the assessment.
State Policies
• Educational agencies across the nation
•
provide accommodations to ELLs as needed;
The criteria for selection and strategies for
implementation vary by state, according to
many factors.
State Policies
Rivera and colleagues (2006)
A comprehensive taxonomy for thinking about
accommodations, both direct and indirect
linguistic support accommodations.
States Must Improve Accountability, Assessment, and
Alignment for Education of ELLs
Accountability
•
Schools are accountable for educational quality, both to those who
fund them and to those whom they serve.
Assessment
•
External assessment (state and district tests) and classroom
assessment are intended to both reflect educational quality and
enhance it.
Alignment
•
There should be a match between external standards for quality and
curricula and classroom practices (Menken, 2000).
Validity of Academic Knowledge
Assessments for ELLs
• ELLs must direct more cognitive resources to
•
processing the language of the test compared
with fully English proficient students;
ELLs may also lack relevant background
knowledge that is central to understanding
content, but may not be related to actual content
knowledge.
Validity of Academic Knowledge
Assessments for ELLs
Using accommodations during testing may improve
validity.
•
These would control for language and cultural factors.
Valid assessments are also useful for instruction and
program design.
•
They provide detailed knowledge of ELL students’ weaknesses and
strengths.
(Francis et al., 2006)
Consequences of Invalid Assessment
• Does not inform the design of effective
programs and curricula;.
• May undermine quality and
appropriateness of individual placement
and instruction;
• May limit a student’s academic
achievement.
Possible Consequences
of High Stakes Assessment
• For schools performing poorly:
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•
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Federal funds withheld;
Schoolwide restructuring;
Student transfers allowed;
Teachers or administrators unrewarded.
• For students performing poorly:
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Additional resources, tutoring, supplemental
services and school choice options.
(August & Piche, 2002; Coltrane, 2002; Abedi et al., 2003; Francis, 2006)
Effective Accommodations
for ELLs Taking Large-Scale
Assessments
What are accommodations?
Encompass changes to standard test
administration procedures, including:
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•
•
•
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How the assessment is presented to the student;
How the student is allowed to respond;
Any equipment or materials to be used;
Extent of time allowed to complete the test; and
Changes to the environment in which the student
takes the test.
Test Accommodations for ELLs
•
Use of accommodations during testing may
improve validity of inferences based on test results.
•
For ELLs participating in large-scale tests,
accommodations are modifications to the test or
testing conditions designed to reduce the impact of
limited English proficiency on the assessment of the
target academic skill.
Test Accommodations for ELLs
•
•
Criteria for selection and strategies for
implementation vary by state.
Appropriate accommodations will address
ELLs’ linguistic needs either:
• directly (e.g., language in test) or
• indirectly (e.g., increased time to process
language).
Types of Accommodations for ELLs
Modification of the testing conditions:
•
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Special scheduling, setting, or extended time;
Use of tools such as bilingual or English dictionaries or glossaries.*
Modification of the test:
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Directions or items may be read aloud in English or in native language;
may be bilingual, native language, or simplified English version of test;*
Response options: response in native language; dictated response.*
*Targets language
Characteristics of Appropriate
Accommodations
Take the student’s background into account:
•
•
•
Native language literacy, if test is to be written in native language;
Familiarity with the accommodation from classroom use, as with
prior use of dictionaries;
Language of assessment and language of instruction need to match.
Their use in combination must be guided by a
specific rationale:
•
For example, use of dictionaries and extended time are a reasonable
combination.
Partial List of Accommodations
Responsive to Needs of ELLs
Accommodations of
Testing Conditions
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Extended time*
Breaks offered between
sessions
Bilingual glossaries*
Bilingual dictionaries*
English glossaries*
English dictionaries*
Accommodations as Test
Modifications
• Directions read in English
• Directions read in native
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language
Directions translated into
native language
Simplified English*
Side-by-side bilingual
version of the test*
Native language test*
Dictation of answers or use
of a scribe
Test taker responds in native
language
* Denotes the accommodations examined in the meta-analysis
Effective Accommodations for ELLs:
Results of a Meta-Analysis
Research Findings
What is a Meta-Analysis?
A meta-analytic review is a specific
approach to research synthesis that
attempts to quantify the effect of an
intervention from a set of comparable
studies.
Preliminary Research
We examined the effect of 8 types of
accommodations which, alone or
combined, affected the performance of
ELLs in large-scale assessments of
achievement.
Most Common Accommodations
for ELLs (GAO, 2006)
Accommodation
Number of states
Bilingual dictionary
32
Reading items aloud in English
32
Small-group administration
29
Extra time
27
Individual administration
27
Separate location
25
Extra breaks
25
Directions in student’s native language
24
Effective Accommodations for ELLs:
Results of a Meta-Analysis
11 studies in total:
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Each study randomly assigned ELLs and nonELLs to testing conditions with and without
accommodations;
Involved 37 different samples of students;
Reported 37 different tests of the effectiveness of
accommodations for ELLs.
Study Descriptions
Grades included:
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11 studies with 4th graders;
22 studies with 8th graders;
2 studies with 5th graders;
2 studies with 6th graders.
Subject Areas:
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17 studies tested math skills;
19 studies tested science skills;
1 study tested reading skills.
Study Descriptions (cont’d)
Type of test
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22 studies examined items from the National
Assessment of Educational Performance (NAEP);
6 studies examined items from the NAEP and the
Trends in International Mathematics and Science
Study (TIMSS);
9 studies examined items from State
Accountability Assessments (two different states).
Seven Accommodations Studied
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Simplified English
English dictionary/glossary
Bilingual dictionary/glossary
Extra time
Spanish language test
Dual language questions
Dual language booklet
(15 studies)
(11 studies)
(5 studies)
(2 studies)
(2 studies)
(1 study)
(1 study)
Accommodations
Simplified English
Involves linguistic changes in the vocabulary and
grammar of test items to eliminate irrelevant
complexity while keeping the content the same.
•
Some changes may be effected by eliminating noncontent related vocabulary, shortening sentences,
simplifying sentence structures where possible, using
familiar or frequently used words, active instead of
passive voice, and using present verb tense where
possible.
Accommodations
English dictionary/glossary
Involves adding definitions or simple paraphrases
for potentially unfamiliar or difficult words in test
booklets (usually on the margins).
•
A variation on this accommodation is to provide
computerized tests with built-in English glossaries.
Typically, this latter variation involves a computer
program that provides a simple and item-appropriate
synonym for each difficult non-content word in a test.
Accommodations
Bilingual dictionary/glossary
ELLs are given access to dictionaries,
glossaries, and marginal glossaries with words
written in English and the student’s native
language.
•
Another version of this accommodation uses
computerized tests with built-in bilingual glossaries.
Accommodations
Extra time
•
•
•
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Providing more time than usual to complete test sections is
among the most frequently used accommodations.
This accommodation does not change the test itself, but the
testing conditions.
Extended time is usually provided in combination with
other accommodations.
The rationale is to allow ELLs extra time to process the
language of the test, or when bundling extra time with
another accommodation, such as an English language
dictionary, to allow time to use the other accommodation.
Accommodations
Native language test
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Typically, text is not translated, but adapted to preserve the
meaning of the original text.
•
The most preferred method of adapting a test to another
language is to use back translation:
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First a proficient speaker, reader, and writer of both languages
translates the original language of the test into the native language;
•
An independent, bilingually proficient person translates the adapted
test back into the original language and compares the two original
language tests for equivalence;
•
If the two original language versions are deemed to be different, the
process is repeated, focusing on correcting those areas of the test
which were not successfully adapted.
Accommodations
Dual-language questions/Dual-language
booklet:
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Changes the format of test booklets;
Booklets have English items on one page and a
translation into the learner’s first language on the
facing page.
Criteria for Evaluating Accommodations
Effectiveness
•
The extent to which the accommodation leads to improved test
scores for the student.
Validity
•
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Controls for the student’s English and for cultural differences,
but does not alter the target skill being measured;
Accommodation only affects the performance of students who
need it.
Practicality
•
Cost and effort involved in implementing the accommodation.
Do Accommodations Affect
Assessment Validity?
Francis et al. (2006) reviewed the research
on the effectiveness of accommodations for
ELLs in large-scale achievement tests.
Method: Using meta-analysis, Francis et al.
quantified the effects of seven different types of
accommodations on the performance of ELLs
(compared with non-ELLs) in tests of math, science,
and reading.
Do Accommodations Affect
Assessment Validity?
Francis, et al. (2006)
Results:
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Of the 7 types of accommodations, only English language dictionaries
and glossaries had overall positive effects on ELL outcomes;
Native language tests and bilingual glossaries were sometimes effective,
but not always;
There are too few research studies to draw firm conclusions. The
effectiveness of a particular accommodation likely depends on how it
relates to student backgrounds and characteristics, which other
accommodations were offered, etc. Still, the characteristics of good
accommodations reviewed above appear valid.
Effective Accommodations
ENGLISH
DICT./
GLOSSARY
BILINGUAL
DICT/
GLOSSARY
SPANISH
TEST
EXTRA
TIME
ELL
TEST
OUTCOMES
DUAL
LANGUAGE
QUESTIONS
DUAL
LANGUAGE
TEST
SIMPLIFIED
ENGLISH
English dictionaries/glossaries
Of the seven types of accommodations used,
only one had an overall positive effect on
ELL outcomes:
English language dictionaries and glossaries
• Produced an average effect—positive and
statistically different from zero;
• No indication that this effect varied across the
conditions studied.
Providing English Dictionaries & Glossaries
• Full dictionaries are not typically used;
• Glosses for specific words from the test
•
appear on the test page;
Separate, abbreviated, alphabetical
dictionaries are tailored to the test vocabulary.
(Abedi et al., 2001)
Bilingual Dictionaries and L1Tests
• Bilingual dictionary/glossary and Spanish
•
language test did not show overall positive
effects, but showed varying effects for
different groups of students;
Results suggest that L1 accommodations
might be effective only when ELLs:
• had received L1 instruction; or
• are literate in their L1;
• However, more research is necessary.
Findings
• Effectiveness of native language tests and
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bilingual glossaries varied;
Too few studies to say conclusively why they
are not effective, but some possible reasons
are:
•
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Language of assessment and language of
instruction do not match;
Students are not literate in L1.
Findings (cont’d)
• Results for Simplified English (one of the
most widely used accommodations) were less
promising than might have been expected;
• Lack of effects for Simplified English is not
an indictment of universal design.
Other Accommodations
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Based on findings, Simplified English would not be
judged as an effective accommodation.
•
•
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However, studies were narrowly focused in terms of
grades, content areas, and type of assessment.
There were two few studies of Extra Time and Dual
Language Tests to draw any final conclusion.
More research is needed to further explore additional
accommodations in varying conditions.
Limitations
Research base is limited in important ways:
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Few studies involve State accountability tests;
Few studies in reading and language arts;
No accommodation has been studied definitively;
Many more accommodations need to be studied;
Effects of accommodations need to be studied in
relation to different conditions, e.g., content
areas, grade levels, test types, students’
characteristics.
Important reminders
• ELLs cannot be assumed to be literate in L1.
• L1 assessments cannot be assumed to offer
linguistically appropriate accommodations.
• More cannot be assumed to be better.
• An explicit rationale is needed for combining
specific accommodations.
Implications of Preliminary Research
• Alignment of curriculum, instruction, and
•
•
assessment is crucial to the academic success
of all students;
Accommodations alone are not effective in
creating valid, effective assessment conditions
for ELLs;
For any accommodation to be successful in
the testing situation, students must have
experience with it during regular instruction.
Implications of Preliminary
Research (cont’d)
Teachers can incorporate the most effective
language accommodation, the use of English
dictionaries and glossaries, into classroom
vocabulary-learning activities.
Academic Language and the
Importance of Vocabulary
Development
The Role of Teachers in Using
Test Accommodations for ELLs
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•
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For an accommodation to be effective in a testing
setting, ELLs must be familiar with its use;
Teachers can incorporate the most effective language
accommodation, English dictionaries and glossaries,
into classroom vocabulary-learning activities;
Teaching academic English vocabulary is important
in all classes at all levels.
(Francis et al., 2006)
The Role of English Vocabulary
in Academic Learning
•
•
•
Vocabulary in academic texts and classroom tasks
differs from conversational vocabulary;
Academic vocabulary is key to learning higher-level
content and to performing well on achievement tests;
ELLs are learning academic English and academic
subject content simultaneously.
(Scarcella, 2003; Short & Fitzsimmons, 2006)
What is Academic Language?
• Vocabulary knowledge:
•
•
Breadth—knowing the meanings of many words,
including many words for the same, or related, concepts;
Depth—knowing many meanings, both common and
uncommon, for a given word;
• Understanding complex sentence structures and syntax;
• Written vocabulary as distinct from oral vocabulary;
• Understanding the structure of argument, academic
discourse, and expository texts.
What is Academic Language?
Other aspects of academic language relate to the text
or word problem that is central to the assessment:
•
•
•
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Organization of expository paragraphs;
Function of connectives such as therefore and in contrast;
Wide range of vocabulary that appears far more often in text
than in oral conversation;
Specific academic vocabulary—the words necessary to learn
and talk about academic subjects (analyze, abstract, estimate,
observe).
Academic Language:
The Key to Academic Success
Developing academic language—
• fundamental to academic success in all domains;
• a primary source of ELLs’ difficulties with
academic content across grades;
• often a challenge after students achieve
proficiency on state language proficiency tests;
• influences ELLs performance on large-scale
assessments.
Academic Language:
The Key to Academic Success
Good conversational English skills may be
accompanied by limited academic language skills:
Many elementary and middle school students—ELLs,
reclassified ELLs, and native English speakers—in urban
schools have academic vocabulary scores around the 20th
percentile. Scores below the 20th percentile are not
uncommon.
What Words Should be Taught to ELLs?
• Frequently used English words: may be
•
•
•
difficult for ELLs, or ELLs may not know all
of their meanings;
Words that students will encounter in reading
and writing across disciplines;
Important content-area vocabulary;
English-Spanish cognates, for Spanishspeaking ELLs.
(Stahl & Nagy, 2006)
Three Principles of Vocabulary Instruction
• Present definitional information as well as
•
•
many examples of use in context;
Actively involve students in word learning;
Provide multiple exposures to meaningful
information about words.
(Stahl & Nagy, 2006)
Core Aspects of Vocabulary
Teaching Strategies
•
•
Using definitions, discussing usage contexts, and
analyzing word parts are basic, complementary
strategies;
Preparing students to use these sources of
information:
•
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Develop an awareness of words and their complexity;
Learn to recognize one’s own comprehension problems,
along with strategies to attack them.
(Stahl & Nagy, 2006)
Effective Dictionary Instruction for
Different Literacy Levels
For beginning literacy levels
•
A picture dictionary teaches alphabetization and parts of the dictionary
(Echevarria et al., 2004).
For advanced English learners
•
Use of bilingual dictionaries while reading increases vocabulary knowledge
(Luppescu & Day, 1995).
•
Learning to identify key content vocabulary teaches word and comprehension
awareness (Echevarria et al, 2004).
For all learners
•
Academic vocabulary should be explicitly taught in all classes, combining
dictionary use and other techniques (Francis et al., 2006; Stahl & Nagy, 2006).
Teaching the Structure
of Dictionary Definitions
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Begin with words students already know.
Show that definitions usually designate:
•
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•
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the category (“genus”) of the word (e.g. a lecture is a type
of speech, a whale is a type of mammal);
how the word differs from others in the category (e.g.,
lectures are primarily educational, unlike comedy
routines).
Present word part analysis and contextual
information along with the definition.
Have students actively engage with the word’s
meaning.
(Stahl & Nagy, 2006)
Learning to Analyze Word Parts
•
Understanding the meanings of English affixes
boosts vocabulary learning (White et al., 1989):
•
•
•
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Eleven prefixes are present in 81% of prefixed words;
Six suffixes are present in 80% of suffixed words;
Understanding the meaning of common Latin- and
Greek-derived roots boosts academic vocabulary
learning (Hiebert & Kamil, 2005);
Exercises with dictionary definitions can incorporate
discussion of word parts.
Active Learning Strategies
for Analyzing Definitions
• Use concept of definition maps (Schwartz &
Raphael, 1985);
• Use group discussion as well as whole-class
•
•
discussion;
Have children rewrite definitions in their own
words;
Once children understand dictionaries, have
them use dictionaries while reading.
(Stahl & Nagy, 2006)
Learning Strategies Using
Contextual Information and Clues
• Have students create sentences or whole
•
•
stories using the new word and compare with
those of others;
Discuss the meaning of the same word in
different sentences;
Expose students to contexts that use different
senses of the word.
(Stahl & Nagy, 2006; Sternberg & Powell,1983; Nist & Olejnik, 1995)
Other Active Vocabulary
Learning Strategies
•
•
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Personal dictionaries of unknown words;
Word study books arranged by morphology (e.g.,
suffixes) (Buehl, 1995);
A classroom Word Wall of key content vocabulary;
Maps of conceptual knowledge ranging beyond
definitional information (Buehl, 1995);
Word sorts by morphology (e.g., affix types) or
meaning;
Whole-class word-generation games (e.g., “How
many words contain port, and what do they mean?”).
(Echevarria et al., 2004)
The Future of ELL Assessment
• Developing a stronger research base may lead to better test
design or better guidance for using specific accommodations.
•
Native language and alternate assessments are challenging to
develop and implement, but may be useful in some
situations.
•
The academic achievement of ELLs remains a strong
national priority, and assessment has an important role to
play in today’s accountability agenda.
(G.A.O., 2006)