Transcript Principles for Teaching Young Learners

Implementing Task-Based
Language Instruction
实施任务型语言教学
Luo Shaoqian
The Chinese University of Hong Kong
Beijing Normal University
Three Dimensions of Language
Teaching
• Goal (i.e. ‘why’ the language is being taught)
• Content (i.e. ‘what’ is taught)
- Type A syllabuses
- Type B syllabuses
• Methodology (i.e. ‘how’ it is taught)
- accuracy
- fluency
Grammar Translation
Goal
Content
Ability to read Type A (list of
literature in
grammar rules
the L2
and words to
be taught)
Methodology
Accuracy (i.e.
accurate
translation of
L2 into L1)
Audio-Lingualism
Goal
Content
Methodology
Ability to
communicate
Type A (list of
linguistic
items to be
taught)
Accuracy (I.e.
focus on
target-like use
of the L2)
Notional/Functional Teaching
Goal
Content
Methodology
Ability to
communicate
Type A (i.e. a
list of notions
and functions
Accuracy (i.e.
focus on
target-like use
of the L2)
Task-Based Teaching
Goal
Content
Methodology
Ability to
communicate
Type B (i.e. a
series of
messagefocused tasks)
Fluency (i.e.
focus on
message
conveyance)
Traditional - Task-based
• Traditional form-focus
• Task-based pedagogy
pedagogy
--Teacher controls topic
development
-- students able to control
topic development
-- turn taking is regulated
by the teacher
-- speakers can self-select
• questions that questioner
already knows the
answer to
• questions that the
questioner does not know
the answer to
• little need or opportunity
to negotiate meaning
• Opportunities to negotiate
meaning when
communication problems
arise
• Scaffolding directed
primarily at enabling
students to produce
correct sentences
• Scaffolding directed
primarily at enabling
students to say what they
want to say
• Form-focused
feedback,i.e.the teacher
responds to the
correctness of students’
utterances
• Content-focused
feedback,i.e.the teacher
responds to the message
content of the students’
utterance
• The teacher repeats
what a student has said
for the benefit of the
whole class
• A student elects to repeat
something another student
or teacher has said as
private speech or to
establish intersubjectivity
First generation tasks
• The main aim of first generation tasks is to
develop students’ communicative ability in
a specific type of situation or area of
language. The task is often structured
around a particular set of functions or a
simple problem.
(Littlewood, 2004; Ribe & Vidal, 1993)
Second generation tasks
• The tasks in the second category pose challenges
of a broader nature. They aim at developing not
only communicative skills but also general
cognitive strategies of handling and organizing
information, such as analysing what information is
needed in order to complete the task, collecting
information,selecting relevant data…
Third generation tasks
• With third generation tasks, the scope widens
further. In addition to the communicative and
cognitive strategies, they also aim to develop the
personality of students through the experience of
learning a foreign language. They go further than
the previous tasks in aiming to fulfill wider
educational objectives, such as enhancing
motivation and awareness, developing creativity
and interpersonal skills…
Task Types
1. Unfocussed tasks
a. Pedagogic
b. Real world
2. Focused tasks
An Example of a Pedagogic Task
1. Four students – each has one picture and
describes it to the rest of the class.
2. Students from the rest of the class ask the
four students questions about their
pictures.
3. One student from the class tries to tell the
story.
4. If necessary Steps 2 and 3 are repeated.
Some Typical Pedagogic Tasks
1. Information-gap tasks (e.g. Same or
Different)
2. Opinion-gap tasks (e.g. Balloon debates)
3. Reasoning-gap tasks
4. Personal tasks
5. Role-play tasks
Note: Tasks can be dialogic or monologic;
they can be performed orally or in writing.
A Real-World Task
Look at the e-mail message below. Listen to Mr. Pointer’s
instructions on the tape. Make notes if you want to. Then
write a suitable reply to Lesieur.
Dear Mr. Pointer
Please send flight number, date and time of arrival
and I will arrange for someone to meet you at the
airport.
Lesieur.
Role-play activities
• Very often in role-play situations there is
no actual outcome for students to achieve,
other than to enact their roles. Students have
to think of suitable things to say to each
other, but they are unlikely to be
exchanging real meaning.
Jane Willis
Two Approaches to Using Tasks
1. Use tasks to support a Type A approach.
- task-supported teaching (Type A)
- weak form of communicative language
teaching
2. Use tasks as the basis for teaching
- task-based teaching (Type B)
- strong form of communicative teaching
A Focused Task
Can you spot the differences?
B
A
A Focused Task
Can you spot the difference?
A
B
A Framework for Describing Tasks
1.
2.
3.
4.
Goal
Input
Conditions
Predicted outcomes:
a. Process
b. Product
Implementing task-based instruction from a
processing-pedagogic view point
• Dangers: if implemented without care, likely to create pressure
for immediate communication rather than inter-language change
and growth; may encourage learners to use excessively and
prematurely lexical modes of communication.
• Possibility to minimize the dangers: to draw on cognitive
psychology and second language acquisition research that
emphasizes processing factors.
• Learners must be able to develop their inter-language systems in
more complex ways through cycles of analysis and synthesis:
revisiting areas; learning in a simple, straightforward manner;
developing by relexicalizing available syntactically which need
not be used on such a basis.
The Methodology of Task-Based
Teaching
Three phases in a task-based lesson:
1. Pre-task phase
2. Main task phase
3. Post-task phase
•
•
•
•
•
Task 1
Task 2
Task 3
Task 4
Task 5
Highlighting main ideas
Planning the weekend
Expressing environmental views
Shopping in a supermarket
Radio weather information
Methodological stages in implementing tasks
实施任务的方法阶段
阶段
任务前
任务中
任务后 1
任务后 2
目标
典型技巧
重构（句子/思维） 意识培养
---语言创建
准备/计划
---减轻认知压力
平衡/融合语言的
任务选择
准确和流利
控制压力
鼓励准确性及重构
公众演示
分析/测试
综合/分析演练
任务排序
任务分类
Methodological stages in implementing tasks
Stage
Pre-task
During
Post 1
Post 2
Goal
Typical techniques
Restructuring
Consciousness---establish target language
raising
---reduce cognitive load
Planning
Mediate accuracy & fluency Task choice
Pressure manipulation
Encourage accuracy &
Public performance
restructuring
Analysis/Testing
Cycle of synthesis &
Task sequences
analysis
Task families
Pre-task work
At this stage, the task itself is the primary factor, task
completion is the aim that dominate.
•
1)To set up the relevant language for a task: to deal
some form of pre-teaching, can be both explicit and
implicit
2) Give learners a pre-task to do and then equip them
with the language they need
Pre-task work
2
to ease the processing load when learners doing a task:
a range of tasks can be used to reduce 认知复杂度 –
1) familiarity leads to recall schematic knowledge
they have;
2) observe similar tasks on video or listen to or read
comparable tasks;
3) do related tasks to activate schema
4) engage in pre-task planning: language to use,
meanings to express.
So they can devote more attention to how to carry out the
task and produce more accurate, complex, and fluent
language.
The Pre-task Phase
•
Three purposes:
---to serve to introduce new language that
learners can use while performing the task;
---to mobilize existing linguistic resources;
---to ease processing load, and to push learners to
interpret tasks in more demanding ways
• Some options:
Allow the students time to plan.
1. Provide a model
2. Do a similar task
3. Pre-teach key linguistic items
The Pre-task Phase
• On general cognitive demands of the task
对任务要求的总体感知
• An emphasis on linguistic factors 关注语言因素
• Supporting learners in performing a task similar to the
task they will perform in the during-task phase of the
lesson 让学生做一些在后面完成任务时需要的准备工作
• Non-task preparation activities
--- brain storming 大脑风暴
--- mind map 思维图
The Pre-task Phase
• Addressing linguistic demands of a task
---predicting, i.e. asking learners to brainstorm a list of
words related to the task title or topic
• Providing a model
提供一个示范
• Asking students to observe a model of how to perform
the task
让学生观察完成任务的模式
• Performing a similar task
完成一些简单的任务
--- simply observing others perform a task can help
reduce the cognitive load on the learner
(Skehan, 1996)
这个阶段是以学习者为中心及任务型学习模式的
有关理论为指导，在Pre-task phase这一环节的教
学安排时，考虑为学生的学习创设良好的学习环境，
使学生成为主动学习者。在呈现新的内容时，将构
成任务内容的新的语言材料的音、意和语言使用环
境同时输入给学生。
The During-Task Phase
Some options:
1. Participatory structure 参与方式: Whole-class vs.
small group work; individual or interaction
2. Set a time for completing the task.
3. Vary the number of participants.
4. Introduce a surprise element.
5. Tell students they will have to present a report to the
whole class.
• pair and group work are seen as central to task-based
teaching; not all tasks are interactive
（二）新语言材料的操练（during- task phase）
the main task phase是指语言技能的
习得过
程。
研究内容：
探讨了如何使语言技能的训练能够吸引学
生积极、主动的参与，如何使语言知识的积累、
语意功能的训练与主题结合。
During the task
At this stage, learners are reminded that fluency is not the
only goal during task completion, and that restructuring
and accuracy also have importance
Task choice: the appropriate difficulty level.
1 too difficult: excessive mental processing – to
communicate any sort of meaning: ellipsis, context,
strategies and lexicalization which reduce the
pedagogic value of a task-based approach.
2 too easy: boring, no serious engagement – no gain in
terms of stretching interlanguage or automaticity
development (Swain, 1985)
During the task
Syllabus: implementation decisions –
1
2
3
4
5
to alter the task difficulty
manipulate the way in which attention is directed
- accuracy to be stressed?
- specific structures to be used
to make a task less difficult: visual support, such as a diagram
to make a task more difficult: surprise elements which learners
don’t expect, e.g. additional evidence in a “judge” task.
The communicative stress factors: time, modality,
participants/relationships, importance of the task, participants’
control over the task.
The Post-Task Phase
•
Three major pedagogical goals:
--- 提供再做任务的机会
（to provide an opportunity for a repeat
performance of the task）
--- 反思任务是怎样完成的
（to encourage reflection on how the task was
performed）
--- 关注语言的形式
（to encourage attention to form）
Post-task activities
Post 1
1 performance: the knowledge while the task is
being done may have to be re-done publicly –
this leads to learners’ attention to the goals of
restructuring and accuracy.
2 analysis: the concern with syntax and analysis is
infiltrated into the task work without the heavyhandedness of the teacher intervention and error
correction.
Repeat performance
• Carry out second performance publicly
（全班，当众）
－Complexity increases 复杂度提高了
－Express more clearly 表达更清楚了
－Become more fluent 语言更流利了
Post-task activities
Post 2
1 examine task sequences, task progression, and how
sets of tasks relate to one another: 1) to repeat tasks
so learners are more effective with the analysis and
synthesis
2) parallel tasks: tasks are similar but with new
elements so to engage the learner interest.
2 task families: groups of tasks resemble one another
and have similar language or cognitive demands
(Candlin, 1987) so learners are clearer of the goals
of such task groups and teachers and learners share
views about task requirements.
The post-task phase
的四种主要活动
• Reviewing of learner errors反思错误
• Consciousness-raising tasks语法意识
• Production-practice activities操练活动
• Noticing activities 注意语言的准确
Reviewing of learner errors
• Teacher moves from group to group to listen and
note down the errors
• Address these errors with the whole class
- can be written on the board
- students can be invited to correct it
- listen again and edit their own performance
- teacher comments on
Consciousness-raising tasks
• There is an attempt to isolate a specific linguistic feature
for focused attention
就某一语法现象单独讲解
• The learners are provided with data that illustrate the
targeted feature or an explicit rule describing or
explaining the feature
给例子说明语法用法或对语法详细描述
• The learners are expected to utilize intellectual effort to
understand the targeted features 通过思考理解语法用法
• Learners may be optionally required to verbalize a rule
describing the grammatical structure 可以是学生口头表达
• To direct students to attend explicitly to a specific form
they used incorrectly or failed to use at all in the main
task
补充不足
Production-practice activities
•
•
•
•
•
•
Repetition
Substitution
Gapped sentences
Jumbled sentences
Transformation drills
Dialogues
重复活动
替换练习
填空练习
打乱的句子
变换句型
对话
Noticing activities
•
•
•
•
Focusing on linguistic form
Dictation
Editing
Writing and teacher comments
Reflecting on the task
• Present a report on how they did the task
and what they decided or discovered – oral
or written
• Summary the outcome of the task
• Reflect or evaluate of their own
performance (fluency, complicity or accuracy)
• Metacognitive strategies 元认知策略
(planning,monitoring and evaluating)
在Post-task activity环节中，安排的语言
输出
活动，应该有以下几个特点：
1、贴近生活的语言使用环境(life-like
situations)；
2、交谈的双方之间有信息差(information gap)；
3、解决实际问题(problem solving)；
4、发挥学生的自主性(active)或创造性
(creative)。
（一）“任务型学习模式”的框架
Task Circle
Pre-task preparation
Meaningful
practice
While-task procedure
Post-task activity
Mechanical
practice
The Foods I Eat (for students)
Task 1: Having a picnic
• Situation: Some children are going to have a picnic. What food
are they going to have? Can you give them some ideas? What
food do you usually have? Name some of your favourite ones.
Subtask1: What food do they want for the picnic?
• Instruction: Now the children are deciding what they want. Look
at the picture carefully and find out the answer by filling in the
blanks.
Subtask2: buying food at the food shop
• Instructions: Lily and Mary are at the supermarket. They are
buying food for the picnic. Please listen to their conversation
carefully. Fill in the chart.
Subtask3: eating at the picnic
• Instructions: Now the children are at the picnic. They have lots
of food. Read the conversation between Coco and Sam.
Complete the one between Helen and Tim.
The Foods I Eat (for teachers)
Task 1. Having a picnic
• Aims of the task:
1. to identify kinds of foods
2. to express likes or dislikes
3. to understand the communicative language at
the food shop
Subtask2: buying food at the food shop
• Task requirements: Communicative language at a
shop. Listening skill
• General: To ask and answer questions about
buying and selling at shops
• Specific:
To assess students ability to:
• -make a conversation at a shop.
• -get information from a conversation.
• -sum up the main idea of the conversation.
• -write money in numbers.
WHO'S WHO IN THE FAMILY
• Family members, BE, Who / whose
• Structure/Vocabulary:
• Family members, BE, Who / whose
• Functions:
• Talking about families
• Materials:
• (1) Cards with description of a new family
(1per student)
• (2) "Find Someone Who..." Sheet
• (3) Model Paragraph
PRE – ACTIVITY
• Skills: Speaking and listening
• Organization: Whole class
• Procedures: Class asks teacher about his /
her family(real) or imaginary.
ACTIVITY
• Skills: Speaking, listening, writing.
• Organization: Mixer
• Procedures:
• (l) Give out cards (one per student): explain that this is their new
family.
• (2) Explain any vocabulary or pronunciation problems.
• (3) Give out "Find Who...?” sheet and explain how it works
Students will answer with information from their new families.
• (4) Done as a mixer. The first student to fill out the sheet correctly
wins.
POST – ACTIVITY
• Skills: Writing, (speaking, listening)
• Organization: Individual / pairs.
• Procedures:
• (1) Go over model paragraph.
• (2) Individually, students write similar paragraphs about their
new families.
• (3) Then, put students into pairs and they correct each other's
paragraphs. (The paragraphs can later be collected and corrected
by the teacher.)
• Father: Hugh, taxi river, 35
• Mother: Marilyn, actress, 30
• You: student, 10
• Father: Edward, politician, 35
• Mother: Mildred , deceased
• You: university student, 20
• Father: John, retired, 99 *
• Mother: Henrietta, retired, 98
• You: retired, 75
•
•
•
•
•
FIND SOMEONE WHOSE
... mother is deceased.
...mother is an actress.
…father is a taxi driver.
…father is a taxi driver.
•
•
•
•
FIND SOMEONE WHO is a student.
is retired.
is 20.
Model Paragraph
• My Family
• My name Is Olivia. I'm 10 and I'm a student. My
father's name is Joseph. He’s a scientist. He’s 44.
My mother 's name is Joan. She is a teacher. She’s
42. I have no brothers or sisters.
• MY FAMILY
Focusing on forms 学习语法
• direct focus on grammar
-- focus on the features of the forms讲解重点语法
-- address errors 纠正语言错误
-- address gaps in the students’ knowledge 补充语
言知识不足
Focussing on Form
Opportunities to focus on form arise in
task-based teaching:
Definition:
Focus on form … overtly draws students’
attention to linguistic elements as they
arise incidentally in lessons whose
overrriding focus is on meaning or
communication. (Long 1991)
cf. Focus on forms
Three Types of Focus on Form
1. Reactive focus on form (error correction)
2. Teacher-initiated focus on form
3. Student-initiated focus on form
Reactive Focus on Form: An Example
T: What were you doing?
S: I was in pub
(2)
S: I was in pub
T: In the pub?
S: Yeh and I was drinking beer with my
friend.
Dual Focus
Learner 1: And what did you do last weekend?
Learner 2: … I tried to find a pub where you don’t
see – where you don’t see many tourists. And I
find one
Teacher:
Found.
Learner 2: I found one where I spoke with two
English women and we spoke about life in
Canterbury or things and after I came back
Teacher:
Afterwards …
Combinations of skills
• listening with speaking and writing
• reading with speaking and writing
• sometimes all four skills
Problems and Solutions
Problem
Solution
1. Students lack
Devise activities that
proficiency to
develop ability to
communicate in the L2 communicate
gradually.
2. Students unwilling Use small group work;
to speak English in
allow planning time;
class.
learner training
3. Students develop
pidginized language
system
Select tasks that
demand fully
grammaticalized
language
Problems with the Educational System and
Solutions
Problems
Solutions
1. Emphasis on
‘knowledge’ learning
Review philosophy of
education.
2. Examination system Develop new more
communicative exams
3. Large classes
Use small group work;
develop tasks suited to
large classes.
Conclusions
1. Task-based teaching offers the opportunity for
‘natural’ learning inside the classroom.
2. It emphasizes meaning over form but can also
cater for learning form.
3. It is intrinsically motivating.
4. It is compatible with a learner-centred
educational philosophy.
5. It can be used alongside a more traditional
approach.
References
Candlin, C. (1987). Towards task-based language learning. In C. Candlin and D.
Murphy (eds). Language Learning Tasks. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Crookes, G. (1989). Planning and interlanguage variation. Studies in Second
Language Acquisition. 11 367-383.
Foster, P. and Skehan, P. (1994). The influence of planning on performance in taskbased learning. Paper presented at the British Association of Applied
Linguistics, Leeds.
Prabhu, N.S. (1987). Second Language Pedagogy. Oxford: OUP.
Skehan, P. and Foster, P. The influence of planning and post-task activities on
accuracy in task-based learning. Thames Valley University Working Papers in
Englsih Language Teaching, Vol. 3
Swain, M. (1985). Communicative competence: Some roles of comprehensible
output in its development. In S. Gass and C. Madden (eds). Input in Second
Language Acquisition. Rowley, MA: Newbury House.
Willis, D. and Willis, J. (1988). COBUILD Book 1. London: Collins.
Reference
Rod Ellis Task-Based Language Teaching University of Auckland
龚亚夫 罗少茜 《任务型语言教学 》 人民教育出版社
龚亚夫 罗少茜 《任务型评价 》 人民教育出版社
施嘉平 任务型学习模式在英语教学中的运用
—对小学低年级英语“主题式教学”的实践研究
上海市徐汇区教育学院