Transcript Chapter 11 Nigeria - St. John's High School

Federal Republic of
Nigeria
Nigeria
I. Public Authority & Political
Power

“National Question”: differing opinions about how political power
should be distributed and how the government should be constructed.
 In Nigeria differences are more distinct and run deeper than
other countries
 Since independence in 1960, neither its leaders nor its citizens
agree on the basics of who should rule and how
 Questions about whether Nigeria should remain one nation
 Regional disagreements & hostilities
 Problems traditionally solved by military force and
authoritarianism
II. Constitutionalism




First constitution written in 1914
Eight constitutions between 1914 and 1995
Current constitution written in 1995 has been
heavily amended since its inception
Acceptance of “constitutionalism” as a guiding
set of principles has eluded Nigeria

Military and civilian leaders have felt free to disobey and
suspend constitutional principles or change constitutions
not to their liking

Without constitutionalism the “National Question” has
been much harder to answer
III. Legitimacy

Nigeria is a relatively young country, achieving
independence in 1960, this makes establishing legitimate
government more difficult

Fragmentation – tendency to fall apart along ethnic, regional,
and/or religious lines.

Contradictory Influence of the Past – British colonial “rule of
law” vs. Military rule/Personalized authority

Corruption – both military and civilian rule tainted with
corruption. Citizens question the payment of taxes that get
deposited in personal bank accounts


General Ibrahim Babangida (1985-1993)
General Sani Abacha (1993-1998)
IV. Precolonial Era (800-1600)
“Political Traditions”

Trade Connections –

Influence of Islam – Trade with North Africa put Hausa &

Kinship-based Politics – village key political entity

Complex Political Identities – contrast between

Democratic Impulses – accountability, representative
Sahara Desert “Golden Trade of the
Moors”; Niger River & Ocean Access
other groups in contact with Arab education and Islam, sharia
emerges as dominant political principle
centralized state and local governance. (Oyo & Ife centralized
states in south vs. small trading-states in north)
government, and democracy practiced by many villages, including
Yoruba and Igbo.
V. Colonial Era (1860-1960)
“Political Traditions”

Authoritarian Rule – in order to achieve goals of

Interventionist State – colonialist trained chiefs to

Individualism – in Nigeria led to a tendency of chiefs to
economic domination British strengthened the authority of
traditional chiefs, making them accountable only to
British. This resulted in a loosening of rulers’
responsibility to the people
operate government to achieve economic goals. Checks on
authority that existed in Britain did not have roots in
Nigeria. This set in place expectations that citizens should
passively accept actions of rulers.
think about personal benefits of governance, rather than
good of the community
V. Colonial Era continued

Christianity – British introduction of Christianity
created a split between Christian and Muslim
dominated areas. Islam dominant in the north,
Christianity in the south.

Intensification of Ethnic Politics – emergence of
three dominant groups: Hausa-Fulani, Igbo, and Yoruba.

British pitted groups against each other by promising rewards to
some groups but not others.

Anti-colonialism movement emerged during 20th century appealed
to ethnic identities to gain followers and supporters of
decolonization
VI. Independence Era (1960Present) “Political Traditions”

Parliamentary vs. Presidential System – Nigeria operated
under parliamentary system from 1960-1979. Ethnic divisions
made parliamentary system difficult, switched to presidential
system with separate legislature and independent judiciary, but
neither has been able to check power of the president

Intensification of Ethnic Conflict – After independence
Hausa-Fulani dominated parliament because of large population.
They formed a coalition with Igbo of the southeast to ensure their
dominance, this created added tension and conflict with Yoruba
of the west. In 1966 a group of Igbo military officers seized
power.
VI. Independence Era continued

Military Rule – first military ruler, Agiyi Ironsi, justified his

Personalized Rule/Corruption

Federalism – in attempt to mollify ethnic tension and remain one

Economic dependence on Oil
authority by announcing his intention to end violence and
political corruption. He was assassinated, sparking the Igbo
secession that led to the Biafran War (1967-1970)
country, Nigerian leaders set up federalist system, with powers
being delegated to state and local governments. Under military
executives however it did not work. Military presidents did not
allow states to have legitimate sovereignty.
VII. Political Culture

Patron-Clientelism (PREBENDELISM)

Clientelism – exchanging political and economic favors
among patrons and clients, corruption becomes
problematic


State Control/Underdeveloped Society

Civil society refers to sectors of country that lie outside
government control.

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In Nigeria state controls all aspects of life (economics,
political participation, religious activity, etc.) this reinforces
clientelism and limits democracy
Modernity vs. Tradition


EX: In Nigeria, in exchange for support a president may grant
his clients a portion of the oil revenues.
Pre-Colonial Era vs. Colonial Era
Religious Conflict
Geographic Influence
Geographic Influences

Northwest – dominated by two groups that combined as the Hausa-

Northeast – area is home to many smaller groups, such as the Kunari,
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Middle Belt – many smaller ethnic groups, mix of Muslims and Christians.

Southwest – Yoruba dominate the area. They are about 40% Muslim,

Southeast – area dominated by the Igbo, predominantly Roman Catholic

Southern Zone – area along Niger River Delta, people are from various
Fulani people, area is predominantly Muslim.
also predominantly Muslim.
40% Christian, and 20% native religions.
with some Protestant Christians as well
small minority groups.
VIII. Societal Characteristics &
Concerns

Poverty

Gap between Rich & Poor

Health Issues – high rates of HIV/AIDS, one in every

Literacy
– 60% of all Nigerians live below poverty line,
with many living in absolute poverty.
– similar to Mexico,
however in Nigeria now growth is being made to alleviate
this gap.
eleven HIV/AIDS sufferers live in Nigeria.
– for males is 75.7% and for females 60.6%
(World averages are 83% men, 71% for women)
IX. Political Cleavages

Ethnicity – Nigeria has between 250-400 ethnic groups, Huasa-Fulani,

Religion – Islam, Christianity, and native religions.

Region – follow along ethnic and religious lines

Urban vs. Rural Differences – most political organizing, interest

Social Class – deep divisions among social classes. Wealth of elites stems
Igbo, and Yoruba dominant. Three groups have very little in common and
speak different languages
groups, and political protest takes place in cities
from access to Nigeria’s resources. Maintained their power by appealing to
religious and ethnic identities. Wealthy elite find it difficult to give up
wealth associated with access to state treasury, educated elite would like
to see adoption of democratic principles.
X. Political Participation

Patron-Clientelism

Voting Behavior

Attitudes toward Government

Protests and Social Movements
Prebendalism

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Personalized system of rule
Personal offices treated like “fiefdoms”
Large patronage networks based on personal
loyalty
Local government officials gain support of
villagers by dispensing favors, in turn they
receive favors for supporting their patron bosses
Most favors exchanged by political elites
Corruption and informal influence rampant
Does however represent established form of
political participation
Voting Behavior

Nigerians have voted in elections since 1959

Voting patterns difficult to determine because of fraud,
postponement, and election cancellation

Political parties are numerous and fluid

Babangida’s annulment of 1993 election hurt political
participation during the 1990s

Local, state, & national elections have continued however
since the late 1990s

About 2/3 of eligible voters participated in the 2003
election
Attitudes toward Government

Citizens do not Trust Nigerian Government

Corruption

Military Rule

Lack of Civil Society

No commitment toward Democracy

Babangida & Abacha (Corrupt - Military
Authoritarianism)
Protests & Social Movements

Environmentalists (Ken Saro-Wiwa)


Targeted the international oil companies, especially in the
Niger River Delta
In 2002 group of Ijaw women occupied ChevronTexaco’s
Nigerian headquarters for 10 days

Ethnic groups

Women’s Movement


President Obasanjo made it part of his 2003 campaign to
include more women in cabinet and bureaucratic offices
Nigerian legislature has very low female representation

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6.4% in House of Representatives
3.7% in Senate
XI. Political Institutions

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Multiple regime throughout its history
North & West – well-developed large states and hereditary
monarchies

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Hausa in west organized into powerful trading city-states
South – small, communal kinship-based rule
British colonialism led to indirect rule, with
chiefs leading on behalf of British government.
(Authoritarian rule under British direction)
Post-independence = Military Authoritarianism
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Government structure formally federalist & democratic, but
does not generally operate as such
British controlled economy led to current state controlled
economy
Nigeria has currently turned to supranationals (IMF & World
Bank) to save economy
XII. Political Parties

Factionalism led to creation of many political parties

Failure to create coherent party system

Parties formed and faded around personalities

Multi-party system reinforced and strengthened ethnic and religious
cleavages

Independent National Election Committee (INEC) – registered a number
of parties following the death of Abacha in 1998

In order to run candidates for the legislative and presidential elections of
1999, a party had to qualify by receiving at least 5% of the votes in twothirds of the states in the 1998 election

This cut the number of parties significantly, only 5 parties were eligible to
run candidates in the 2003 election
Political Parties II

People’s Democratic Party (PDP)
 Well-established Party
 Began running candidates in 1998
 Party of President Olesugun Obesanjo (Igbo, Christian from the North)
 Obesanjo received 62% of vote in 2003 election
 PDP gained majority in National Assembly and most of the governors
throughout the country
 Do to voter fraud, difficult to determine accurate level of support for
the PDP

All Nigeria People’s Party (ANPP)
 General Muhammadu Buhari, Muslim from the North, ran against
Obesanjo
 Received about 32% of the vote
 His running mate and potential future candidate was Chuba Okadigbo,
an Igbo from the Southeast

Other parties that ran presidential candidates include All Progressive Grand Alliance (APGA), The
Movement for Democracy and Justice (MDJ), and the Justice Party

Alliance for Democracy (AD) did not have a presidential candidate in 2003, but did receive 9% of
the votes for the legislative elections
XIII. Elections & Electoral
Procedures

Citizens vote for candidates on 3 levels: local, state, and
national.
National level citizens vote for the president,
representatives to the National Assembly, and senators
from their states.

National Elections

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Presidential Elections

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
After annulled election of 1993, first election took
place in 1999, with another in 2003.
If presidential candidate does not receive outright
majority, a second ballot election takes place.
President must receive at least 25% of the votes in 2/3
of the states
 A purely regional candidate can not win
 Requirement reflects difficulty experienced in
attempt to unify Nigeria
Elections Continued

Legislative Elections

Senate has 109 senators, 3 from each of the 36 states, and
one from federal capital territory of Abuja
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360 representatives of National Assembly (formerly the
House of Representatives)
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Elected by direct popular vote
Elected from single member districts by plurality vote
Regional representation dominates in both houses.
Wide-array of ethnic coalitions in legislature
Legislative authority is weak in Nigeria
Election Fraud



Currently 3 consecutive elections have been held without
annulment or delay
Public protest and several deaths have accompanied the last few
elections, but none were as bad as many predicted they would be
Several politicians were assassinated, including Marshall Harry, a
leader of the ANPP

Independent National Electoral Commission (INEC)


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Attempted to cleanse electoral process, declared six million names
to be fraudulent during 2003 elections
International teams concluded elections were corrupt
Voting boxes were stolen, vandalized, and stuffed with fraudulent
votes
Voting patterns in the south in particular were suspicious
XIV. Interest Groups

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Have actually played an important role in
Nigerian politics
A large number of civil society organizations
often cooperate with political parties
Religious interest groups important in Nigeria
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Christian Association of Nigeria protested when General
Babangida changed Nigeria’s status in the Organization of
Islamic Conference from observer to member
Muslim civil society organizations in the north work to
support the shari’a court system
Citizens have worked around military
authoritarianism to have an impact on political
life through labor unions, student groups, and
populist groups.
Interest Groups II
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Labor Unions
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Business Interests
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Independent and politically influential prior to 1980s
Through the introduction of corporatism the Babangida regime limited the
influence of labor unions
A central labor organization supplanted the older unions, and only
candidates approved by Babangida could be chosen as labor leaders
In July 2003 labor unions widely and openly protested the government’s
attempt to raise oil prices for Nigerian consumers
Business interests have tended to work in collaboration with the military
regimes, in return for the spoils related to the corruption of the elite class
Associations for manufacturers, butchers, and car rental firms have
operated outside the realm of government and helped promote economic
reforms of the 1990s
Human Rights Groups
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Promote democratic reforms
Include university students, teachers, civil liberties organizations, and
professional groups (doctors, lawyers)
These groups protested against the abuses of Babangida and Abacha
XV. Mass Media

Nigeria has well-developed, independent press

General Abacha attempted to curb criticism of his regime
by closing several newspapers and magazines in Nigeria in
1994

Press reflects ethnic divisions in the country

Outspoken and critical newspapers mainly in the south

Radio is the main source of information for most
Nigerians
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All 36 states have their own radio stations
XVI. Institutions of National
Government

Nigeria is a federal political system (in theory)

Three branches of government (Legislative, Executive,
Judicial)

Executive has been most dominant traditionally

Each of the 36 states and 774 local governments has an
executive, legislative, and judicial branch

2nd, 3rd, & 4th Republics (all since 1979) had presidential
system, with a strong executive theoretically checked by
bicameral legislature and independent judiciary

Currently neither federalism or checks & balances operate,
and state & local governments are completely dependent on
the central government
Executive Branch

1979, 2nd Republic, presidential system replaced
parliamentary system based on British model

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Belief was that a president could symbolize national unity
and rise above weak party system

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Multiple ethnic groups fragmented the multi-party system and the
legislature and prevented a prime minister from gaining the
necessary authority to rule
U.S. presidential model with two-term limits
1983, Major-General Muhammadu Buhari initiated palace
coup, set precedent for military coups and military rule

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Buhari ousted by Gen. Babangida in 1985
Gen. Abacha replaces Babangida in 1993
Civilian rule returned in 1999, President Obasanjo
Executive II

Military Rule

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7 military rulers have all
ruled differently
All promised transition to
democracy


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Only Obasanjo in 1979
and General Abubakar in
1999 delivered
democratic transition
Generals Buhari (198385), Babangida (1985-93),
and Abacha (1993-98)
used repression and
violence
All military & civilian
regimes concentrated
power in hands of the
executive

Patrimonialism

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

Generals/Presidents head
of patron-client system
Dispense government jobs
and resources as rewards
to political supporters
Cabinet positions &
bureaucratic chiefs part of
president’s patronage
system
Patrimonialism in Nigeria
is unstable which has led
to recurring coups
XVII. Bureaucracy

British installed elaborate civil service system during
colonial period

Nigerians were allowed to fill lower-level jobs within
bureaucracy

Civil service sector continued to grow after independence

Current bureaucracy is bloated, corrupt, and inefficient.
Bribery is common.

Jobs in civil service are often awarded through the patronclient system, Prebendalism.
Bureaucracy II
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Parastatals
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Most government agencies are
parastatals, or corporations
owned by the state. (Similar to
Mexico)
Provide commercial and social
welfare services
Board members are appointed by
government ministers, and
corporate executives are part of
the president’s patronage system
Parastatals provide public
utilities such as water, electricity,
public transportation, and
agricultural subsidies
Control major industries such as
steel, defense industry, and
petroleum

State Corporatism

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Corporatism – authoritarian
political system that allows for
political input from selected
interest groups outside the
government structure
In Nigeria, this input is provided
by parastatals, because they are
controlled by the government it is
referred to as State Corporatism
Parastatals insure that the state
controls private interest as well as
fulfills social & economic
functions
Parastatals serve as contact point
between government & business
interests, but state ultimately
controls these interactions
(Corrupt & inept)
XVIII. Legislature

A parliamentary system until 1979

Replaced by a bicameral legislature

Nigerian legislature under military governments have had
no power, under civilian government they have been unable
to check power of the president

Corruption scandals – in 1999 president of the Senate and
speaker of the lower house were removed for perjury and
forgery. In 2000 the Senate president was removed for
accepting kickbacks for a government contract
Legislature II

Senate

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109 Senators
3 from each of the 36
states
1 from Abuja district
Directly elected by
popular vote
Senators are ethnically
and religiously diverse
Only 4 of 109 Senators
were women as of 2003
elections

National Assembly




Formerly called
House of
Representatives
360 member
representatives
Single-member
districts, elected by
plurality vote
Only 23 of the 360
representatives are
women (2003)
XIX. Judiciary
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Early years of after independence judiciary had great deal of autonomy
Autonomy stripped by military decrees that nullified court decisions and
setup quasi-judicial tribunals outside regular system
Judicial review was suspended
Presidential cronies appointed as justices
Today judiciary is responsible for interpreting laws in accordance with the
Constitution, so judicial review exist in theory
Court structure at state & federal level, highest court is the Supreme
Court
Shari’a courts exist in parallel existence with courts developed on British
model
Cases:


In 1993, Mshood Abiolao, winner of annulled 1993 election was detained and died in
custody. Presiding judges changed often and critics attacked the military cronyism of the
judicial system
In 1995, activist Ken Saro-Wiwa, and 8 other activists were detained and executed under
court orders arranged by the military and presided over by military officers
XX. Military

Strong, policy-making force in Nigeria

“Military in Government” – those that initiate coups and take over the
responsibility of the executive branch

“Military in Barracks” – fulfills traditional duties of military, its leaders
have been critical of military control of political power.

Military has been subject to internal discord, military presidents often
have to keep a close eye on other military leaders.

Babangida protected his authority by constantly moving military personnel around and
appointed senior officers through his patronage system

Military is one of the few institutions that is truly national in character.

Military has restored and maintained order during ethnic strife and
conflict
XXI. Public Policy

Top-down policy-making process.

Power concentrated in hands of the president & cabinet ministers through
channels established by patron clientelism

Loyalty Pyramid – senior officials supported by broader base of loyal
junior officials

State control of resources means that those in the pyramid get the spoils,
they alone have access to wealth and influence. Loyal clients of patronage
structured pyramids includes:

“Kaduna Mafia”, “Babangida’s Boys”, and “Abacha’s Boys”

Military controls pyramids, pyramids supported by “guns” (Force);
therefore, protesting system can be dangerous

Top-down, self-interested rule established by British during colonial era
when the British relied on native chiefs to ensure Nigerian trade and
resources benefited Great Britain
XXII. Economic Issues

Loyalty pyramids and corruption have led to a squandering of
Nigeria’s wealth

Nigeria is currently in debt and majority of the population lives in
poverty

Large oil revenues have been pocketed by government officials

Economic situation complicated by ethnic & regional conflict

In February 2001, federal government asked the Supreme Court
to all the government to collect oil revenue and put it in a “federal
account” (Revenue Sharing)

Areas in the south along Niger River Delta protested this idea, they believed
the policy was a way for northerners to take profits and revenue away from
the south
Economic Issues II

Oil

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Oil wealth during the 1970s
gave Nigeria international
leverage

OPEC member


Structural Adjustment

1980s, Nigeria seeks
assistance from international
organizations to deal with
debt crisis

World Bank & IMF
involvement
Conflicts in Middle East have
made Nigeria more important
as a trade partner for other
countries since 1970s
Lack of economic
diversification hurts Nigeria
when oil prices drop

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“Shock Treatment” not very
successful


DEBT – as a result of drop in
oil prices and lack of revenue
surplus
Restructure &
diversification of Nigerian
economy
Privatize parastatals
Cut government spending

Parastatals still under
government control
Debt repayment had to be
restructured
XXIII. “Federal Character”

Federalism seen as a positive characteristic for Nigerian political structure
Federalism promises power-sharing
Allows citizens more contact points with government

“Federal Character”
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Recognition of all ethnic, religious, & regional groups
Nigerian Constitutional Provisions

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Senators represent diverse states
Representatives elected from diverse districts
President must receive 25% of the votes in 2/3 of the districts
Negatives of Federalism

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Federalism bloats bureaucracy
Promotes corruption within bureaucracy

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Jobs created to satisfy demands of various ethnic groups
Legislative branch suffers from gridlock

Competition over government resources
Federalism II

Southerners argue that federalism will only exist
when central government devolves some authority
to the state & local governments

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
Nigerians of the Niger Delta believe they should control
their own resources
Redistribution of the region’s oil wealth should be
prohibited
Southerners suggest that police duties should also be the
responsibility of local and state governments
This “True Federalism Movement” not
supported by Northerners


North has few resources and very little revenue to share
Northerners benefit more from redistribution of wealth
programs
XXIV. Reforms

Economic Reforms of the late 1990s

Further privatization of state-owned industry

Limitations on economic controls of the central
government

Money taken by General Abacha returned by
foreign banks and placed in the state treasury

Scheme for alleviating poverty in Nigeria

Increase in public wages


Hope of decreasing instances of corruption
Increase in financial reserves as a result of
stabilized oil prices