Transcript Chapter 6 Sexual Arousal and Response

Chapter 9
Sexual Orientations
Sexual Orientation
• Sexual orientation represents one’s distinct sense of a
natural preference and consistent attraction to sexual
and romantic partners.
• Sexual orientation may have 3 distinct components:
– Affective (feelings of attraction, desire, love),
Behavioral, and Self-identity
• Klein Sexual Orientation Grid (KSOG)
– This model includes seven dimensions: attraction,
behavior, fantasy, emotional preference, social
preference, self-identification, and lifestyle.
A Continuum of Sexual Orientations
Primary erotic, psychological, emotional,
and social orientation
• Homosexual
– Orientation toward same sex
– Gay men and lesbians
• Bisexual
– Orientation toward both same and other sex
• Heterosexual
– Orientation toward other sex
• Asexual
– No sexual attraction toward either sex
Kinsey’s 7-point continuum
• Distinctions between homosexual and heterosexual are not as
clear cut as many believe them to be
• Scale based on both feelings of attraction & sexual behavior
• Limitation: gives erroneous impression of fixed orientation
Fig. 9.2 Kinsey’s continuum of sexual orientation (adapted from Kinsey et al., 1948, p. 638).
Kinsey’s 7-point Continuum
• 0 = exclusive contact with and erotic attraction to the
other sex
• 7 = exclusive contact with and erotic attraction to the
same sex
• Men are more likely to be found on far ends of scale
• Women who identify as heterosexual are 27 times more
likely than heterosexual men to express moderate or
more same sex attraction
Kinsey’s Scale
Sexual Orientations
• Past Kinsey data = 2% of females & 4% of males were
exclusively gay
• Men are more likely to fall at the extremes
• The gay/lesbian/bisexual community generally cites a 10%
combined figure.
• Upon review of over 50 years of research, King concludes that
about 3-5% of adult American men and about 1% of adult
American women are homosexual. Bisexuals are not included
in these figures.
Sexual Orientations
• NHSLS data: 1.4% of females & 2.8% of males identify as
homosexual
• May depend on how question is asked
– In NHSLS study, 5% of men and 4% of women said they
had had sex with person of same sex since age 18
– Global Sex Survey: average of 12% of respondents from 41
countries said they had same-sex experience
Bisexuality
• Researchers as well as the gay/lesbian/ bisexual
community now agree that bisexuality is a legitimate
classification of sexual orientation, distinct from both
heterosexuality and homosexuality.
• More women identify as bisexual than men
– May be due to greater social tolerance for same-sex
affection between women
• Rates of bisexuality have tripled in past decade
Bisexuality
• Types of bisexuality
– Real orientation: individual feels attracted to both
sexes
– Transitory orientation: temporary bisexual
involvement by someone who is actually homosexual
or heterosexual
– Transitional: when someone is changing from one
orientation to another
– Homosexual denial: attempt to deny exclusive
homosexuality to avoid stigma of homosexual identity.
Sexual Fluidity
• Variability in attraction at various times and
situations
• For women
– Sexual fluidity is more common
• For men
– Sexual fluidity is much less common
Asexuality
• Asexuality: feeling no sexual attraction to either sex
– Rarely studied
– National study in Britain of 18,000 people found that 1% of
individuals were asexual
– According to Asexual Visibility and Education Network,
asexuality is a sexual orientation, not a choice--therefore,
different from celibacy
– Asexual people lack sexual attraction to others, but still
have desire for friendships, affection, and partnerships
– Some asexual people masturbate, but feel no interest in
sexual activity w/a partner
Origins of sexual orientation
• Neither heterosexuality nor homosexuality nor
bisexuality has a single cause.
• Heterosexuality is the “norm” because the vast majority
of people are heterosexual; other orientations are a
normal part of human diversity.
• Biological, psychological and socio-cultural influences
interact to produce a person’s adult sexual orientation.
What Determines Sexual Orientation?
Psychosocial Theories
• Focus on role of life experiences, parenting
patterns, or psychological attributes of individual
• Attempt to explain the “cause” of homosexuality
• Theories
– “By Default” Theory
– The Seduction Myth
– Freud’s Theory
• Parenting patterns or early childhood experiences; no
research to support
What Determines Sexual Orientation?
Biological Theories
• Focus on biological causes for sexual orientation
• Genetic factors
– Homosexuality as familial
– Identical twin studies
– Homosexuality and gender nonconformity
• Implications if biology is destiny
– May lead to greater acceptance
– Genetic engineering, tolerance for “defective”
orientation, and intolerance for choices
What Determines Sexual Orientation?
Psychoanalytical
• Freud’s Victorian biases.
• Belief that sexual orientation depended upon
how the Oedipal complex was resolved
– Fixation or regression because of a domineering,
rejecting mother would lead a boy to turn to men for
love > male homosexuality
– An absent father and cold, rejecting mother would
lead to female homosexuality
• Interesting, popular theory but no reliable
evidence has been found to support it.
What Determines Sexual Orientation?
Social Learning/Behaviorism
• Social learning theory – rewarding experiences
with same-sex or bad experiences with othersex individuals early in life.
– Although some homosexuals have this childhood
background, so do many heterosexuals.
– Most lesbians have had pleasurable sexual relations
with men but still prefer sexual relations with women.
– Boys from cultures in which adolescent same-sex
activity is encouraged, there is no greater ratio of
adult homosexuality.
Genetic Factors
• Concordance rates for identical twins is about
52% but only about 22% in fraternal twins.
• Certain DNA patterns on the X chromosome (the
genes a man inherits from his mother) appear to
be associated with male homosexuality. No such
pattern has yet been identified for lesbians.
• 50-60% of a person’s tendency toward one
sexual orientation of the other appears to be
genetic.
Brain Differences
• Differences between heterosexual and
homosexual men are found in a small region of
the hypothalamus as well as a major bundle of
nerves connecting the two halves of the brain.
– These parts of the homosexual men’s brains were
more similar to brains of heterosexual women than
they are to brains of heterosexual men.
Effect of Prenatal Enviroment
• The mother’s immune system changes with
each birth and may affect her younger sons.
– Homosexual men have more older brothers than
heterosexual men; each additional older brother
increases the probability that the younger brother will
be homosexual by 33%.
– There is no evidence that sexual activity or other
influences of the older brothers is the cause of this
phenomenon.
Effect of Prenatal Enviroment
• Animal studies reveal that prenatal treatment
with hormones will result in homosexual
behavior.
– Hypothalamus’ of male homosexuals respond to
estrogen in the same way as heterosexual women;
the hypothalamus appears “feminine.”
– Other hormonal effects
– Homosexuals are more likely to be left-handed
– Lesbian finger length studies – similar to males
Prenatal Development
• Ellis and Ames claim that the critical period for
development of sexual orientation comes
between 2nd and 5th months of pregnancy;
others claim that hormones have an effect in the
first year or two following birth. The genitals
have been differentiated since weeks 7-12.
• Maternal stress, genetic-hormonal factors,
drugs, and immune system functioning may all
play a role in the biological component of
orientation.
Heredity/Environment?
• Both biological and social influences contribute
to the development of sexual orientation,
whether heterosexual, bisexual or homosexual.
• Biological factors predispose an individual to a
particular sexual orientation.
• Today there is stronger evidence for the
biological contribution in men than in women;
the sexual fluidity of bisexual women
emphasizes the importance of social context in
women’s relationships.
History
• Pederasty – an accepted practice in some parts of
ancient Greece; sexual behavior between adult men
and adolescent boys as a natural part of his social
education.
– Because it was accepted in society, the “boys” seem
not to have been harmed by this practice and there
are many artifacts created by both the young men
and their mentors attesting to their deep love and
commitment to one another.
– Heterosexual marriage and having children was still
every adult male citizen’s duty to the society.
– Adult men were also free to have female lovers.
Ultimately, male pleasure was the rule of the day.
History
• Some Hebrew groups, prior to the 7th century
B.C. practiced same-sex religious rituals, which
were later banned during a later movement to
unify the Hebrew “nation,” hence the strong,
anti-homosexuality language in Leviticus.
• Female homosexuality was dealt with less
harshly because there was no spillage of the
“sacred seed.”
History
• Early Christians, following Roman tradition, were
initially tolerant of same-sex behaviors, including
pederasty.
• Later, St. Thomas Aquinas (13th century) taught
that the only purpose of sex was reproduction;
therefore homosexuality was unnatural.
• Not until the 17th century did same-sex acts
become considered criminal.
History
• Late 1800s – homosexuality become considered a sign
of mental illness. By the early 1900s intolerance of
homosexuality reached an all-time high.
• 1957 – Evelyn Hooker’s research found that there are no
psychiatric differences between heterosexual and
homosexual men.
• 1973 – American Psychiatric Association removed
homosexuality from its list of mental illnesses.
• The Catholic church no longer considers homosexual
orientation (desire) sinful but continues to condemn
same-sex behaviors.
History
• Late 1800s – homosexuality become considered a
sign of mental illness. By the early 1900s intolerance
of homosexuality reached an all-time high.
• 1957 – Evelyn Hooker’s research found that there are
no psychiatric differences between heterosexual and
homosexual men.
• 1973 – American Psychiatric Association removed
homosexuality from its list of mental illnesses.
• The Catholic church no longer considers homosexual
orientation (desire) sinful but continues to condemn
same-sex behaviors.
Current Views
• 2000 – 46% of Americans view homosexuality as
sinful, down from 54% in 1998. About 80% favor
equal housing and employment protection for gays
and lesbians.
• 2003 – U.S. Supreme Court rules against state laws
that prohibit the sexual expressions of
homosexuality.
• 2003 – 2/3 of Fortune 500 companies offer benefits
to same-sex domestic partners.
Homophobia
• 90% of gay men have been verbally abused or
threatened (1989).
• Most mental health problems among gays and
lesbians can be attributed to “minority stress.”
• Homophobia – term first used in 1960s implying that
negative attitudes toward homosexuals reflect
irrational fears.
• Sexual prejudice – refers to negative attitudes and
behaviors toward homosexuals but without
implication as to the origin of these feelings.
Causes of Homophobia and Hate Crimes
•
•
•
•
Lack of acceptance and valuing
Traditional gender role stereotypes
Extreme manifestation of cultural norms
Denial of homosexual feelings
States With No Hate Crime Laws
Sexual Minorities and the Media
• Effects of increasing exposure
• Portrayal of gay, lesbian, and bisexual
individuals as “regular folks”
• Individuals cannot determine sexual orientation
of individual shown on a video
Coming Out and Disclosure
• Coming Out
– Several steps involved
– Self-acknowledgement
– Self-acceptance
• Disclosure
–
–
–
–
Passing: risks and benefits
Telling family can be difficult
Involvement in the LGBT community
Double minority
• Individuals who are both sexual and racial minorities
Same-Sex Relationships
• Similarities with heterosexual couples
• More egalitarian than other-sex relationships
• Sex Differences
– Lesbians more likely than gay men to be
monogamous and value emotional intimacy
Family Life
• Variations
– Same-sex couple
– Same-sex couple with children
– Single individual with children
• Same-Sex Parenting
– Adoption laws
– Children of LGB parents do not differ from those of
heterosexual parents
Gay Rights Movement
• Began in 1969 with Stonewall Rebellion
• Goals
– Decriminalization of private sexual behavior
– Legal protection from discrimination
– Legal protection for same-sex families
• Health care
• Marriage
• Adoption