Transcript Slide 1

The last victim of the Wall. The DDR’s shoot-to-kill order was a secret one, never officially acknowledged. Chris Gueffroy
[inset], a 20-year-old barman, had heard from a young Grenzer that the order had been rescinded. He was due to be
conscripted into the NVA in May 1989 (the year the Wall fell), and did not want to serve in the army of a state he despised.
On the night of 5th February, he and a friend attempted to cross the Wall. Unfortunately for them, the order was still in place.
The two friends had almost reached the Western marker, when Gueffroy received ten fatal bullets in the chest. His friend
was wounded, but survived. There was such an outcry in the West that Erich Honecker, then Head of State, actually did,
finally, rescind the order. A simple memorial marks the place where Gueffroy died [above]. The Wall, of course, is gone.
Gueffroy’s death, and its effects, was one of the events presaging to the collapse of the DDR later that year.
Death by “natural causes” – Wolf-Olaf Muszynski drowned in the cold waters of the Spree river, 1st April 1963, while
attempting to swim to freedom. His body was pulled out of the water on the Western side. He was not shot. Statistics on
the number of deaths caused by the Wall range from 86 [shot] to 227, depending on the criteria used. Although the
number shot seems small, these Wall deaths have the power to shock because each one was a considered individual act
of cold-blooded killing. Worse, all the victims were desperate to escape the claustrophobic, oppressive country in which
they lived, and were killed by their own fellow citizens for trying to do so. The consequences of Honecker’s shoot-to-kill
order amply illustrate the truth of Stalin’s well-known quip: “A single death is a tragedy, a million is a statistic.”
Soldiers of the DDR
THE EAST GERMAN SOLDIER AND HIS
UNIFORM
[1]
[2]
[3]
From 1962, after the border had been sealed, the
majority of NVA soldiers were conscripts, who
could be as young as 18 years of age – very like
Priory boys the year after Matric. They were forced
to do 18 months’ military service. Since they had
nowhere to go except the tiny, grim country in
which they were trapped, most completed their
service quietly and obediently, in order to get on
with their lives when it was finished.
The East German military retained the familiar
German “jackboot”, as well as the traditional fieldgrey in its dress uniform, throughout its brief
existence. Contrary to popular Anglo-Saxon belief,
it is not a Nazi uniform, but based on a style in use
in the German army for a long time. Everyday
summer uniform consisted of battle-dress with a
rain pattern, called Strichtarn, with a cap called a
Schiffchen, “boat” [see 1 opposite].
In general, NVA conscripts despised their uniform
for what it represented, or at very best felt quite
indifferent to it. Another reason for this is that,
unlike, for example, South Africa, NVA uniforms
were not new, but issued over and over again, so
that they were old and worn, even when first
received. Peter Tannhoff speaks of his “far too big
and worn out old boots, which two recruits [!] had
already worn before me.” [18 months each]
Not the “jackboot”, but the Wall, is a symbol of
the totalitarian power of the East German
State; the naked, brutal power that kept sixteen
million people prisoner in their own country for
nearly thirty years.
[1] Step-out uniform with Schiffchen [2] Parade-dress uniform with Stahlhelm
[3] Winter uniform with Fellmütze. East German boots and helmet had
significant differences to World War II models. See next two slides.
German Boots
East German conscripts’ “jackboots”* [above] were black. The
smooth side of the leather was on the outside. Soles were of
rubber. They were of two types: sturdy, round-toed leather
marching boots [above], and square-toed, patent leather
[officer’s] parade boots [right]. The marching boots were everyday
wear. They could be fitted with steel heel-plates to prevent wear
and tear. Conscripts’ boots were unlined, and provided very little
protection against the cold German winters.
World War II boots were
brown, and had to be
polished black. The rough
side of the leather was on
the outside of the lower
part. Their soles were of
leather, with hobnails and
steel heel-rims. To save
leather, the German army
replaced jackboots with low
boots in 1942 – bottom,
right
*The term “jackboot” does not
exist in German; these boots are
called Marschstiefeln [marching
boots] or Knobelbecherstiefeln.
German Helmets
The German helmet is usually referred to as a “Stahlhelm”
[steel helmet]. Its shape was originally intended to prevent
the ears from being lopped off by a sword-stroke during a
duel. This is the M40 helmet, in use at the time of World
War II. With variations, German steel helmets up to the end
of the Second World War all followed this basic design in
one way or another.
The East German Model 1956 steel helmet was, in fact,
originally designed in 1944. Its flatter curve deflected bullets
much better than did the M40. Hitler rejected its style as unGerman, so that the Third Reich never used it. By 1956 it
was standard NVA issue. The “double-y” chin strap fitted
around the ears, and kept the helmet firmly and comfortably
in place. Until the US developed the Kevlar helmet, the
Model 1956 was regarded as the best of the steel helmets,
though NVA soldiers had some rude names for it, the
politest of which is “mushroom”.
ABC Warfare
The Warsaw Pact armies were all prepared for “ABC”
[Atomic, Biological, Chemical] warfare, which suggests
that their regimes intended to use such weapons
against the West. Soldiers were trained to fight while
wearing protective clothing. The key to survival was the
Soviet silicon gas mask, below, known in the NVA by
the sarcastic name Schnuffi, presumably because of
the snuffling breathing sounds made by the wearer. In
addition, soldiers were protected from contamination by
Schutzanzug [protective suits], right, that covered even
their boots. These were extremely unpleasant and
heavy to wear, and were hated by conscripts. The
conscripts at right were in the notorious top secret
nuclear rocket base at Tautenhain in Thuringia, one of
the harshest military units in the entire NVA.
Schnuffi with filter. The bag in
which it was carried was fixed to
the front of the soldiers’
webbing. On command, the
soldiers had to crouch down,
remove the Stahlhelm, affix the
mask, replace the helmet and
stand to continue marching.
There was a time-limit within
which this had to be done.
A Mini-gallery of East German Conscripts, 1960s to1980s
2
3
4
4
1
Young East German conscripts, 1962-89.
Conscription was relatively new for them,
have been reintroduced in 1962 for
the first time since the Second World War.
[1] New conscripts on what might be their
first 15 km route march. Their exhaustion
gives their status away. [2] More experienced conscripts on manoeuvres, with
Russian weapons. [3] Conscripts from the
top-secret Tautenhain nuclear rocket base
on manoeuvres, covering a truck with
camouflage netting. [4-5] Snapshots of [4]
NVA conscripts during a break in field
exercises and [5] Grenzer conscripts on
patrol. Most young men who are conscripted
view it as something they would prefer to
avoid. But equally, confronted by the inescapable reality of tough training and military
discipline, most try to make the best of it,
and to find as much enjoyment as they can.
5
A Mini-gallery of East German Conscripts, 1970s and 80s
1
4
33
2
5
6
[1] A weary young conscript dozes on parade in the rain, 1970s. [2] A nervous Fallschirmjäger tries to give a brave “thumbsup” on his first jump, late 1980s [3] NVA motorised infantry in an armoured personnel carrier, waiting to take part in Warsaw
Pact exercises, 1980. [4] Footsore young Grenzer on a rural border patrol, 1970s. [5] Grenzer on skis, Harz mountains, winter
1970s. [6] Ducking down out of the cold wind for a quiet smoke. As in the previous photographs, the youthfulness of these
conscripts is striking. Already, at this age, Grenzer were expected to “shoot-to-kill” anyone trying to escape from the DDR.
East German infantrymen on an exercise during the 1980s. The uniforms are modern, leaf-pattern
camouflage [Flecktarn] battle dress of a style used by armies world-wide. Only the Model 1956 helmet
and “jackboots” give away the soldiers’ country of origin. Had Hitler never come to power, this is how
modern German uniforms might have looked.
The standard uniform of the NVA was a rain
pattern called Strichtarn [Tarn = camouflage].
This photo is from the film An die Grenze, but
the uniform is genuine NVA issue.
In any army, the paratroops are the elite force. These East German Fallschirmjäger are no exception. They look like their brother paratroopers world-wide. “Jackboots” would never provide the necessary ankle-support for landing. As such, they were issued rather with lacedand-strapped jump-boots. The helicopter is Soviet-built, with the NVA coat-of-arms on the side. This photograph was taken on 28th September, 1990, when they made the last NVA paratroop jump. These were all integrated into the armed forces of the United Germany.
•
The Militarisation of the DDR
•
“In the everyday DDR there was much talk of ‘peace,’ but militarism was
ubiquitous at every level of society.
It began in Kindergarten. The little ones there already had to sing soldiers’
[marching] songs and play with toy tanks.
It continued with pre-military training in the schools, in military sports camps
and the Society for Sport and Technique [GST], in Vocational Training, where
one had to prepare for a career as Radio operator, [heavy-duty] driver or Sailor.
Then you went to the NVA [conscription for 18 months]. Those who studied
[first] had to do 3 years! [as short-term, non-commissioned officers].
After that, one became a reservist, and had to undergo Reservist training every
two years.
When one became too old, or was spared Reserve service, one became a
member of the Workmen’s Fighting Groups. Even here, there were monthly
exercises!”
•
•
•
•
•
E-mail from Thomas Wittig [transl.]
The background picture shows a monthly meeting of the Kampfgruppe des Werktätiges.
The Fahneneid
From 1962, when
conscription was
introduced, all NVA soldiers had to
swear an oath on the banner of their
regiment. Although the DDR was an
atheist state, this oath had an almost
mystical significance. For conscripts, it
was taken at the end of basic training, on
the same day, country-wide. It was used
as the basis for severe punishments if its
provisions were broken [see last
paragraph]. Desertion was described as
Fahnenflucht [literally, fleeing the banner]
The last soldiers to swear this oath, did
so in the Autumn of 1989, only weeks
before the Wall fell. The second
paragraph is the key to understanding
the DDR’s political concep of the NVA.
Inset: Official Fanhneneid poster.
I swear: to serve the German Democratic Republic, my Fatherland, truly at all times, and at the command of
the Workers’ and Peasants’ Government, to protect it against all enemies.
I swear: as a soldier of the National Peoples’ Army, to be ready at any time, at the side of the Soviet army, and
the armies of the socialist countries who are allied with us, to defend socialism against all enemies, and to lay
down my life in the cause of victory.
I swear: to be an honest, brave, disciplined and alert soldier, to obey military superiors with unconditional
obedience, to carry out commands with determination, and to keep military and state secrets.
I swear: conscientiously to keep abreast of military knowledge, to abide by military regulations, and above all
and always to preserve the honour of our Republic and its National Peoples’ Army.
Should I ever violate my solemn oath on this banner, may the severe punishment of the law and the contempt
of the working people fall upon me.
The concept of the Socialist Armed Forces
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
The Socialist Doctrine:
Models: Grossen Bauerkriege [Peasant Revolt] of 1525; War against Napoleon, 1813;
Revolutions of 1848 and 1918; Spanish civil War, 1936.
The Socialist “struggle for peace” against imperialist warmongering. “He who works for
the victory of Socialism, works for Peace.”
Armed forces of socialist countries work together for the victory of Socialism as
“Waffenbrüder” [brothers-in-arms]
The defining moment for the NVA: the building of the Anti-Faschistische Schutzwalle,
13th August 1961. “Walle” is a defensive rampart, e.g. a castle wall. The idea is that
peace-loving Socialism is being defended against the violent assaults of Western
imperialism, which seeks to destroy it.
The Reality:
Inconsistency: 1848 was bourgeois, yet held up as a model; 1953 [against the DDR] a
true workers’ revolt against tyranny, was brutally suppressed. Surprised?
Socialist countries kept their populations in a permanent state of war-readiness.
The Warsaw Pact countries were not truly sovereign countries fighting alongside each
other; they were puppets of the Soviet Union, which kept its own troops permanently
stationed on their territories. “When the Soviet Union coughed, the DDR leaders caught
cold.” [Georg Breuer].
The socialist countries claimed to be fighting to free other countries from capitalist
imperialism and ensure thereby world peace. In fact, the Soviet Union was itself an
imperialist power, spreading its doctrine by force of arms.
Within the Warsaw Pact countries, even their own armed forces were turned, not against
their enemies, but against suppressing their own people. This made the life, for example,
of NVA conscripts impossible, not to say unbearable. [See next two slides]
Waffenbrüderschaft: The Red Army [foreground] and NVA [background] parade together. This event is taking place in
the DDR; nevertheless, the photograph makes it very clear who is the senior “partner.”
Behind the Wall, the lie persists. NVA soldiers march in a patriotic spectacle on Marx-Engels Platz, East Berlin’s equvalent of
Red Square in Moscow. To the left of the leaders’ and dignitaries’ stand is a massive banner proclaiming “We protect the DDR”. In
practice, the NVA was used by the DDR leadership for two main tasks: protecting the Soviet Union through its “membership” of the
Warsaw pact, and oppressing and shooting its own citizens. Neither involves their protection to any great degree.
Members of the Young Pioneers [identifiable by their blue
scarves] present flowers to conscripts who have just taken
the Fahneneid. The cheerful innocence of the scene is
apparently genuine, on the part of both children and
soldiers. It belies the reality of the DDR regime’s purpose,
for which these harmless emotions were exploited.
Beyond the wholesome patriotic appearance of the parade,
with its smiling young soldiers in smart uniforms, its happy
children, lies the reality of the DDR: 16 million citizens
trapped in a tiny, claustrophobic country, regimented into
ideological straitjackets, punished for dissenting from the
party line, poor, living in a polluted environment, with no
appeal against a totalitarian regime that exercised
practically unlimited power over them.
The impression of the soldiers as protectors and friends
that this occasion evokes, is an especially sad irony for
both conscripts and children. The soldiers can be called
upon to do almost everything except protect their fellow
citizens. Should any one of the children grow up to attempt
an escape from their country, similar smiling young
conscripts would be required to shoot-to-kill.
The cover of the Time magazine issue
that reported the death of Peter
Fechter, illustrating, from a West-Berlin
perspective, quite how close he came
to freedom.
The Wall becomes permanent
Concrete and Watchtowers
Building the later Wall. This section was erected in the suburb of Neukölln in 1987, just three years before the Wall fell.
The segment to be rebuilt is the stretch of wire fencing at the right of the photograph. First, Grenzer climbed over the old
Wall and assembled a cage-like structure to stop the workers from escaping.The Grenzer on the left is exactly one metre
from West Berlin territory, with nothing stopping him from fleeing.
Once the fencing is removed, the prefabricated concrete segments of the new Wall are put in place. Notice the broad, flat
base, giving the segment an L-shape.
The spaces between the segments are now cemented in, while the segments themselves are welded together along the top
edge [inset]. The workers are all young men; hence, no doubt, the fear of their escaping, and the need for the wire cage.
Broad piping is then lifted on to the top of the Wall by crane [inset], and fixed in place. The piping made it virtually
impossible for escapees to gain a hand-hold on the top of the Wall.
Finally, a coat of white paint is sprayed on to the new section of Wall. It will not remain white for long.
As evening falls, work finishes, and workers and Grenzer
climb back over the Wall, home into the DDR. The guard at
left is last over, and takes the ladder across with him.
By the next morning, the western face of the new section of
Wall already bears its first graffiti message. “Is this our
fault? 5-9-87” it reads. Though West Berliners learned to
live with the Wall, they never accepted it as a final reality.
Until its fall, it remained an offence to them.
The Berlin Wall:
A Schematic
Representation
The Wall was all but uncrossable in its later years. It
was never a single entity; its structure depended upon
where each particular section was. It was expensive to
operate and maintain, so the DDR leadership sought to
cut costs wherever they could.
It is interesting to note that even those responsible for its
maintenance and operation were not entirely trusted by their leaders
– due to so many of them making a break. The DDR was very careful
whom it allowed to be Grenzer, since many joined the Border Police
in order to seek a chance of escape. Politically suspect citizens were
not even considered.
This suspicion is confirmed by the layout of the Wall. Note the two tracks; an
inspection track for those involved in the maintenance of the Wall [3], and a
patrol track for the Grenzer patrolling it [7]. The markers [6] were the closest
that the Grepo patrols were routinely allowed to the West. Even a Grenzer
could come under fire, it would seem, for crossing over to the Western side of
the markers without proper authorisation.
For most Westerners, the concrete barrier on which the murals were painted, was the
Wall. For the DDR, it was merely the “border marker” [1]. East Berliners never really
got to see it. Beyond the “border signal fence” [11] was a concrete slab fence called
the “hinterland wall”. From this to the border marker was about 80 metres. The area
marked as “3” was known as the “death strip.”
Looking at this elaborate and dangerous structure, the word “Wall”, even with an
upper-case letter, can be seen to be grossly inadequate in describing the ugly reality.
1. Concrete flagstone with or without piping on top
2. Wire mesh fencing
3. Raked sand “deatrh strip” and inspection area
4. Lighting
5. Anti-vehicle trench; could have tank-traps
6. Outer limit of border patrol track
7. Patrol track
8. Guide wire of guard-dog track
9. Alarm
10. Observation tower
11. Fencing with built-in alarm
The Wall sometimes divided whole streets in two; for example, the Heidelbergerstrasse, pictured here. Tank traps and
ditches were designed to keep East Germans from breaking out using vehicles. The view is along no-man’s-land.