2 million litres of water go over the horseshoe falls every second. The falls are retreating at a rate of 2m per year

Tourism

28 million tourists visit the area each year to see the falls and experience the Maid of the Mist boat trip, the “journey behind the falls” tour, the speed boat up the gorge as well as take in the tourist sites that have been built next to the falls themselves.

Tourism has lead to the falls being heavily developed with a lot of hotels, traffic congestion and litter.

Formation

Niagara Falls is on the 58km long Niagara River which links Lakes Eerie and Ontario. At Niagara Fall the river flows over a hard Lockport Dolomite which lies on top of soft sands and shale. As it flows it erodes the shale (mainly through abrasion and hydraulic action) leaving an overhang of dolomite. This is unsupported and as the erosion continues the overhang eventually collapses. At Niagara this is a drop of 50m.

Over time the falls retreat up the river creating a gorge. The Niagara Gorge is 11km long.

Uses

The waters of the Niagara River are used by 100,000+ Canadians and US citizens for a range of purposes such as: drinking, boating, fishing, swimming, bird watching, Industrial cooling, and hydroelectricity.

The Energy Plant generates 4.4 GW of energy and is contracted to keep the falls flowing and clean.

Reasons for the flooding PHYSICAL

-A very wet August (2 times average rain) SO the ground was already saturated -Impermeable rocks & thin soils -Steep slopes – rapid runoff -Confluence of Rivers Valency & Jordan is just above the village -A very high tide – made it difficult for water to flow out to sea

HUMAN

-Bridges were low so acted a a dam - debris such as tree trunks caught on them water piled up until it burst through in a great wave -Many buildings & roads were positioned close to the river so more property damage

Primary Impacts

-50+ cars, and caravans were swept out to sea -a wall of water swept through the village destroying everything in its path -6 buildings were swept away -Many other houses, shops etc were flooded, with mud + sewage as well as water; possessions also ruined -Roads under 2.75m of water -No deaths, few serious injuries

New Management & defence

£4.6m scheme includes: raise car park to safer level; move & raise bridge; widen & lower the river bed to increase the amount of water it can hold -Removing of dead vegetation to stop blocking of the river ‘At risk’ properties – encouraged to use more flood resistant material, raise height of electrical wiring etc -Environment Agency – flood warning system + information -Council runs special advice days, encouraging people to have an emergency evacuation pack & to take out insurance. Council has an emergency action plan. Since 2004 – flooding again, still damage but not as damaging as this event

Secondary Impacts

-90% of economy dependent on tourism > lost money >20 accommodation providers & tourist attractions/shops forced to shut Insurance companies pay out £20 million

Characteristics of Bangladesh

-Lays mainly on floodplains, so flat land Most of the land lies 6metres below sea -3 main rivers- The Ganges, Brahmaputra and Meghna. -Monsoon season evey year – high concentrated rainfall in a few months (June to September).

-1,800mm and 2,600mm rain a year. -Poverty is a huge issue in Bangladesh-low literacy rate -Flooding occurs naturally in Bangladesh -Snow from the Himalayas melts each year and increase river discharge -Sediment blocks up the river and causes flooding -Deforestation in the forest increases run off and reduces lag time -Cyclones occur in the Bay of Benegal and causes coastal flooding -Densely populated areas meaning increase in deaths

Social impacts

-36 million people were made homeless -People died as a result of disease because they had no access to clean water.

-Impacted on rural farmers and urban slum dwellers the most.

-Over 800 died with many more from disease

Environmental impacts

During July and August approximately 38% of the total land area was flooded including 800,000 ha of agricultural land and Dhaka Floods caused river bank erosion especially on embankment areas close to the main channels, soil erosion, water-logging, water contamination

Economic impacts

-serious damage to infrastructure – roads, bridges, embankments, railway lines, irrigation systems -All domestic and internal flights had to be suspended during July -Value of damage was assessed as being in region of $2.2 billion of 4% of total GDP for 2004

Response and management

-Reliance on Ngo support – financial and emergency supplies –UN disaster management support -Self help schemes promoted -local community early warning system implemented, plus shelters -Increasing use of levees to protect field and villages -Increasing monitoring to reduce the impact as happens every year. -encourage farmers to build homes on stilts.

Nature conservation

-Studland and Brownsea island all have rare species and plant life.

See Studland case study for examples. Brownsea, like Studland is owned by the national trust. Particularly important for bird life and red squirrels. -

Green Island

is a Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI) and Special Protection Area (SPA) -Studland and Brownsea Island are all protected by various organisations due to their environmental significance.

Residential

-Sandbanks and Hamworthy (12,000) are the most built up areas of Poole Bay.

-With a small population in Studland and Brownsea Island -Sandbanks is famous for having the 4 th most expensive land value in the World.

Transport

-Poole harbour is the second largest natural harbour in the World. -There are commercial trips within the harbour as well as an international ferry terminal to Cherbourg, Brittany and the Channel Islands (Jersey, Guernsey) -Run by Condor and Brittany ferries

Recreational

-A wide range of sporting activities due to the calm bay within the Harbour and the actual coast.

-Windsurfing is the most popular watersport., alongside sailing. -The RNLI offer lifeguarding service on the main beaches.

Energy

-Furzey Island is home to the well hidden oil well and gathering station for Wytch Farm - Britain's largest onshore oil development. Oil and gas are exported, was previously BP now Perenco.

-There is a proposal to build an off-shore wind farm just outside of Poole Bay, yet this has been meet with much hostility.

Industry

-Sunseeker is the largest company in Poole Harbour, with the production of the large luxury boats. There are 7 shipyards, employs over 2,500 locals. - Other boat repairs, dredging and cargo industries operate in the area.

-The nature reserve is an area of sand dunes. These are dynamic, but often unstable and vulnerable environments. home to rare species of plants and birds - Identified as a National Nature Reserve (NNR) and Site of special scientific interest (SSSI) -Owned by The National Trust -In 2001 Studland had a population of 480, the lowest in 50 years. -Sheltered from wind so sand is deposited and trapped to create dunes , 5km of beach -Forested area, Studland heath, marsh and sand dunes. -Little sea is the lake located within the heath and forested area.

Human Use

-wide, sandy beach attracts millions of tourists, can be 25,000 each day Car parks, café, shops -Sailing jetty -Beach huts -Education centre -Horse riding and water sports. -Naturist area -Locals – small village with few amenities -Ferry from Sandbanks

Issues

-Litter -Pollutions from cars, water and noise -Fire hazards from BBQs and cigarette butts -Major fire in 2009 that left utter devastation to the ecosystem -Conflict between users those that want to use for more activities and environmentalists. In addition locals become inundated during the Summer months.

Rare species

Bee wolf Purbeck Mason wasp Dragonflty Smooth snake Adders Sand lizards Dartford Warblers Seahorse

Management

-Litter -Planting of marram grass to stabilise the dunes , plus fencing -Boardwalks have been created to reduce trampling -Limited car parks to reduce the damage to the beach -Fire beaters placed throughout the area to reduce damage from fire -Litter and recycling bins -Several info boards to educate -Also gabions and rock armour to protect from wave erosion

Why was Chinas population controlled?

China had to control its population as the country was increasing and increasing. In the 1950s, China wanted to improve its wealth; the President thought the country had too many people to increase its wealth.

-There were more people in China than the

combined

population of Europe, the Americas and Japan.

-The population was creeping quickly to 1 Billion people.

Reasons why China thought it wouldn’t become rich with a big population -Need more food which means they couldn’t sell a lot to other countries The government would have to spend a lot of money on health care and education.

Wouldn’t be enough jobs for everyone so the government would have to pay benefits The One child Policy In 1979 the Chinese government introduced the One Child Policy. This meant each couple could only have one child.

If couples had more than one child they would have to pay fines or they would force the mother to have an abortion. You had to be married and over 25years to have children.

If couples had one child they would get free healthcare, education and money.

Married couples in the countryside were allowed 2 children as the government saw that children were needed to help with farming.

As families were only allowed one child, most wanted a boy to keep on the family name, so if women found out they were having a girl they would adopt or abort the baby. This now has created a large population of males and not enough females. In 2000, it was reported that 90% of foetuses aborted in China were female . Today it is thought that men outnumber women by more than 60 million.

Has it worked?

The birth rate in China has fallen since 1979, and the rate of population growth is now 0.7%.

China's one-child policy has been somewhat relaxed in recent years. Couples can now apply to have a second child if their first child is a girl, or if both parents are themselves only children.

While China's population is now rising more slowly, it still has a very large total population (1.3 billion in 2008).

Young men and women are leaving rural Caatinga for a better quality of life in Sao Paulo.

Their plan is to send money back to their families in rural areas. This sometimes fails as they struggle to earn enough money in Sao Paulo and find that they are forced to live in favelas.

Negatives for Sao Paulo

Increasing population in Sao Paulo can’t fit into the available housing and so favelas (shanty towns) spring up.

20% of people in Sao Paulo live in favelas like Paraisopolis.

There is limited fresh water and electricity; high crime; low health and education. The favelas are unsafe and susceptible to flood, landslide and fire industry.

Pull factors

–Bright lights, the idea that there are better opportunities -Better employment -better education, business opportunities -higher standard of living

Positives for Sao Paulo 1980 to 2011

Brazils urban population increased from

65% to 85%

Caatinga is one of the two poorest regions of Brazil. It is an agricultural area but due to increasing desertification this is becoming more and more difficult.

Push factors

. Few jobs outside of farming Poor education (the lowest levels in Brazil) Low life expectancy Low life expectancy and education are due to a shortage of services such as schools and health facilities Effects on Caatinga Rural areas are left without the young and healthy.

This means the manual work on the farm has to be done by elderly or very young.

When the young are forced to work this takes them out of education making the situation worse for the future.

The young and elderly are not as fit and so can’t produce as many crops which leads to a decline in wealth and food. This results in poorer health and increased migration to Sao Paulo.

More workers so the economy grows An increased demand for services and goods so more work and trade for urban

People move for a better QUALITY OF LIFE The perceived attractions include:

-a slower pace of life -the scenery -the community -away from busy larger cities -lower crime rates -the peaceful Peak District

Popular areas for retirement migrants have of this:

problems

as a result

-pressure on health care -demand for social services -an increase in house prices -a lack of suitable housing

The migration to Hathersage causes housing problems. There are rules about new building projects so barns and outbuildings are converted for residential use.

Increased demand for housing pushes up prices which means local people (who often work in farming or tourism in the area), can’t afford to live there.

There are also advantages: • There is an increased demand for local services - so People choose Hathersage because 1. It has bus and train services into Sheffield and Manchester 2. It is just 12 miles from the centre of Sheffield on the A625 3. It is a centre for outdoor activities like walking, climbing and cycling 4. It has a number of cafes and pubs for socialising.

5. It has a very popular swimming pool The local shop and pubs have more custom • jobs in social care and health care are available • A growth of age related services, such as chiropodists, social groups and bingo for elderly.

• Increased public transport particularly at rush hour Local councils have to spend a large proportion of their budget on elderly care whether social services or hospital care

Migrants moving from Poland to the UK are classed as

economic migrants. Push factors

from Poland include -high

unemployment

of -

19%

.

Low wages

of £8000 -

housing shortages

with only 300 houses available for every 1000 people -Lack of higher education -Low standard of living

If a country is part of the EU, you can move freely between every country

Between 2004 and 2007

half a million

poles arrived The UK has

pull factors

such as -

higher wages

of £20,000 - low

unemployment

of

4%

. -Higher standard of living -Higher education opportunities -Already a multicultural society - Part of the EU so can enter easily and gain a working visa

Impacts to Poland (origin country)

-(+) Money is sent back to Poland, this is called remittances, this strengthens their economy (£1bil) - (-) Skilled workers leaving Poland, this is called the Brain drain - (-) Underpopulation, an ageing population in Poland. (82% aged 18-34 migrant from Poland) - (+) Most migrants are temporarily leave Poland, so come back with better skills and money

The UK government attempts to manage immigration.

Polish workers have to

register

under the

worker registration scheme

. For

new EU countries

like Bulgaria the government tightened their control and now migrants have to get

permission

from the

home office

to work here and it is only granted for certain jobs – where there is a shortage. Other counties manage migration through a

point based system

based on education, age, language ability etc e.g. Australia. The UK is looking at this. We also have

limits

and

targets

set and we control illegal immigration though deportation – here illegal migrants are arrested, jailed and forced to return home.

Impacts to the UK (host country)

-(+) Polish migrants contributed

£1.9 billion

in

taxes

. -(+) provide

skilled workers

like plumbers, will do

unpleasant jobs

like cleaning.

- (+) Creates multicultural society - (-) Puts pressure on public services (health, education) - (-) creates tension in the community (e.g they take our jobs) -(-) overcrowding

Why did the London Docks go into decline?

1. An increase in ship size meant they found it difficult to come down the river as far as the Isle of Dogs where the river wasn't as deep. (the position of the docks moved further downstream to Tilbury); 2. Containerisation meant few dockers were needed with large cranes used to lift containers from ships; 3. The decline of portside industries and manufacturing £10 million spent homes - a total of 22,000 new homes built -of old warehouses to new homes - New shopping centre built - refurbishment of shopping parades - - many restaurants, pubs and cafes built - Docklands Sailing and Watersports Centre £100 million spent on health, education, job training etc In 1981 the London's Docklands Development Corporation (LDDC) was set up to improve the economic, social and environmental problems that had developed in the area that was once one of the world's busiest ports.. The area became on the first Enterprise Zones in 1981. The land was made rate free for ten years. -Unemployment had fallen & business increased - transport revolution - opening of the Docklands Light Railway in 1987 - now carrying 35,000 passengers a week; £7.7 billion in private sector investment -Building of the City Airport -- attraction of financial and high-tech firms, - TV studios and newspapers such as The Guardian now have offices in the prestigious Canary Wharf business complex.

Environmental Regeneration - network of pedestrian and cycle routes - creation of pedestrian bridges - creation of new open spaces (150ha) - Water based Ecology Park and London's first bird sanctuary at East India Dock Basin - one of 17 conservation areas set up - planting of 200,000 trees; - the area has now received many awards for architecture, conservation and landscaping

Success

-Increase in trade -Large TNCs came -Better transport -Sustainable building (Brownfield sites) -Conservation

Criticisms

Didn’t benefit the original residents, couldn’t afford new houses -No community -High skilled jobs not for old dockers

Since the 1980s, much of the retail development in the UK has been in the form of out of-town developments as land is cheaper, more land is available in the countryside, workers are nearby and good transport links.

It has excellent access to the market (consumers) and for supply, being just outside the M25 in the area of Dartford . It has a good catchment area, with over

11 million people

within an hours drive.

Bluewater, known as Europe's largest retail and leisure complex, opened in 1999, it was built on a brownfield site. It used to be a chalk quarry.

Economic impacts

-Provides jobs in the local -Gives local income to strengthens the economy through consumers and local council BUT CBD is struggling as most people go to OOT centre rather than town centre, so urban decay.

Trade in the local CBDs have decreased by over 50%

The cyclone happened on 2nd May 2008 at the Irrawaddy delta in Burma •Strong winds up to 135mph •• Storm surge of 7.6m •Heavy rainfall The primary impacts included -140,000 were killed -450,000 homes -1700 schools were destroyed. -200,000 farm animals were killed -40% of food stores were destroyed. -Rice fields were flooded on the

Irrawaddy Delta

The secondary impacts were that -up to 3 million were made homeless -millions lost their livelihoods. -Over 70% of households didn’t have access to clean water and this caused diseases. -There was a shortage of food.

-1000’s of temples were destroyed The cost of the damage was $10 billion. The impacts were also greater in Burma than the USA because many in Burma depend on farming (crops and livestock) and much of this was totally

destroyed

Additionally, they do not have flood defences and their houses are poor quality and easily destroyed. The Government failed to warn its people. People were not evacuated in http://www.coolgeography.co.uk/A-level/AQA/Year%2013/Weather%20and%20climate/Hurricanes/Cyclone_Nargis.htm

time As Burma is a poor country it could not afford to plan, predict and prepare like the USA. The emergency services were ill prepared, had little training or equipment and lacked numbers. The government refused to accept foreign aid at first as they said they could cope. Its government is a military dictator and they do not like outsiders! Aid workers were eventually allowed in, though this was three weeks after the cyclone .

In early January 2010 the EU released €3 m in emergency funding.

The European Council and its member nations later announced more than €429 million in aid.

The country is located on a conservative plate boundary between the Caribbean Plate and the North American Plate.

3 Million people live in Port au Prince with the majority living in slum conditions after rapid urbanisation.

The poorest country in the western hemisphere. GDP is 143/227. 66% of the population of Haiti earn less than £1 a day with 56% of the population classed as “extremely poor”

- 12th January 2010 an earthquake measuring 7.0 on the Richter scale struck Haiti.

-The focus was 13km underground -The epicentre was 25km from the capital Port-au-Prince -Haiti suffered a huge number of serious aftershocks.

-The number of people in relief camps of tents since the quake was 1.6 million -In July 2010, CNN returned to Port au-Prince and reported

, "It looks like the quake just happened yesterday

“.

-A January 2012 Oxfam report said that a half a million Haitians remained homeless -Only about 20% of aid has been spent by the Haiti government as they have no resources.

The governments of the United States, Israel ,the Dominican Republic, Canada, Brazil, Italy and Cuba3 sent over 1,000 military and disaster relief personnel each, with the United States being by far the largest single contributor to the relief efforts.

The January 1994 Northridge Earthquake struck hard: the first major earthquake to occur directly beneath a highly urbanized area in California.

The earthquake happened on a deep fault in the San Fernado Valley Northridge was fairly prepared for earthquakes through education, rescue efforts and strong buildings.

Primary effects

-57 people killed -9000 injured -Thousands of buildings damaged -Transport links damaged (roads) Yet due to the earthquake happening early in the morning it reduced the deaths

Secondary effects

-Landslides -Powerlines and waterlines damaged from the debris -Extensive fires Near the epicenter in the San Fernando Valley, well-engineered buildings withstood violent shaking without structural damage Liquefaction occurred in some areas It was declared a federal disaster, so 100s of workers from FEMA helped the community recover Millions were given to the 600,000 people that applied for financial assistance.

Landslides were triggered in mountainous areas, these block roads and damaged homes 15,000 aftershocks occurred, these can trigger the collapse of weak buildings Wooden buildings were the buildings that generally collapsed Fires broke out from the leaking gas pipes, areas were completely destroyed by the fires The USGS monitor the movement yet can not predict , so preparation is key!