Transcript Borders and borderlands South Sudan

Borders and borderlands
South Sudan
GEOG 220 – Geopolitics
“Borders were drawn essentially
according to the geopolitical, economic
and administrative interests of the
colonial powers, often taken into
account at a global scale. The most
often cited example is that of the
division of the Hausaland, between
today’s Niger and Nigeria. The FrancoBritish treaties of 1904 and 1906 redrew
the border in favor of the French side, in
exchange for France’s renunciation of
fishing rights off the coast of
Newfoundland” (Miles, 1994: 68).
MILES, WILLIAM F.S. (1994): Hausaland Divided:
Colonialism and Independence in Nigeria and Niger.
Ithaca: Cornell University Press.
• Arbitrariness => divisions resulting in divided communities,
minorities that can be oppressed, livelihoods complicated
(pastoralism)
Yet …
• Asset for state consolidation
• “Many resolutions adopted by the OAU continually strengthen the
territorial foundation of the African States and their respective
frontiers. Resolution A.G.H/16.1 of July 21, 1964, to cite just one,
incorporates the rule of uti possidetis: ‘All the member States are
committed to respect the frontiers existing at the time of their
independence.’” … very few changes, but Ethiopia/Eritrea and
Sudan/South Sudan
Why establish borders?
Colonial competition
… and conflict avoidance
Colonial state =>
Berlin Conference 1884-85
• distinction between ‘native’ and ‘non-native’
• Politicization of indigenousness
• Reinforce divides through spatial segregation and
bifurcated legal codes
Post-colonial state =>
• citizenship as right of ‘native’, excluding ‘non-natives’ and
‘settlers’.
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1820: Sudan is conquered by Turkey and
Egypt.
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1881: Rebellion against the Turkish-Egyptian
administration.
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1882: The British invade Sudan.
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1885: An Islamic state is founded in Sudan
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1899: Sudan is governed by British-Egyptian
rule.
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1947: Juba Conference to convince Southern
Chiefs to seat in “national” assembly in
Khartoum => integration of the South into
Sudan
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1955: Southern revolt and start of the civil
war.
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1956: Sudan gains independence.
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1958: A military coup takes place in Sudan.
The civilian government is removed.
From ‘Southern Policy’ to integration…
“I believe that our policy regarding these areas should
be restated as follows:-"The policy of the Sudan
Government regarding the Southern Sudan is to act
upon the facts that the peoples of Southern Sudan are
distinctly African and Negroid, but that geography and
economics combine (so far as can be foreseen at the
present time) to render them inextricably bound for
future development to the Middle East and Arabs of
the Northern Sudan and therefore to ensure that they
shall be educational and economic developments be
equipped to take their places in the future as socially
and economically the equals of their partners of the
Northern Sudan in the Sudan of the future”.
B.V. Marwood, Governor of Equatoria, confidential
report on the ‘Juba Conference’ June 1947
Southern Sudanese struggle for
independence
• 1955-1972
• Cold War: Mengistu, Nimeiri, Bush and Chevron
Oil and war(s) in the Sudan
• Oil finds around Bentiu
– Nimeiri reluctant to see oil finds in South
– Southern oil fields discovered (1979-82)
– ‘Unity’ State created
– Oil infrastructure to be directed northward
– Southern rebel movement target oil sector
– Chevron suspends work 1984 and sell off in
1992 to private Sudanese, resold to
Canadian juniors (Arakis, Talisman), JV with
CNPC, Petronas
– ‘Peace Agreement’ with SPLM splintered
faction allows infrastructure construction
China comes to play leading role
So do some ‘western’
companies
“
We work without regard to
political risk. It is so difficult to make
large oil- and mining discoveries that,
if you also limit yourself to countries
which are politically secure you would
not have a chance… The only thing
that is important for us is that what
we are looking for can be really big.”
Adolf Lundin, Chairman of Lundin Oil AB,
August 1996
Comprehensive Peace Agreement
(2005)
• Military dead-lock
• Reunited SPLM/A
• Post-9/11 US pressure
 Interim period
 Referendum 2011
‘Wealth Sharing’: Oil
12000
100%
10000
80%
60%
40%
8000
20%
Sudan
Million $
0%
6000
South(ern) Sudan
from transfers
4000
2000
0
1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011
Referendum Jan. 2011
Independence on 9 July 2011
Main border issues
• Groups identifying with the south are now in the north =>
continue fighting against north, north suspects south of assisting
rebellion (SPLA-North)
• Disputed areas become militarized, incl. Abyei with skirmishes
and large population displacements
• Oil from fields in the south flowing via the north => mutual
interest turned into mutual ‘economic self-destruction’ (98.5% of
non-aid government budget for South Sudan)
• Traded goods from the north for northern areas of the south =>
local populations affected by border closure
• 200,000 refugees in South Sudan
• 500,000 affected by conflict in South Kordofan and Blue Nile
Jammam – Displaced people from Blue Nile
Cross border oil flows
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South Sudan gets 75% oil, incl. largest reserves
$32/bbl ‘transit fee’ demanded by Khartoum
Diversion of Southern oil to Northern refineries
Loading of ‘Northern’ tankers with Southern oil
• Little response from the ‘international community’
• Chinese ‘diplomatic’ interventions fail
• Deadlock by Jan 2012
“We’ll Eat Sand”: Shutting down oil
 98% of fiscal revenue for South Sudan
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Historical grievances
SPLM political register
Growing criticism of corruption
Few alternative options
Personal agendas
Renewed conflict and displacement
• http://www.flickr.com/photos/enoughproject/
6954028806/in/set-72157629504710896/
Destruction of oil infrastructure
Protests in Khartoum
Southern pipeline projects via Kenya or Ethiopia
Costs probably
prohibitive unless
major new fields
found and developed
Conclusion
• Borders mostly a colonial creation
• State sovereignty long pursued by South
Sudanese
• State border territorial expression of
sovereignty but creates many problems
Policy recommendations
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unilateral demarcations should be stopped;
all demarcations should be transparent;
official joint commissions should be established to facilitate demarcations;
map archives should be open;
the local population should be consulted;
third parties should be allowed to engage in dispute mediation along the border;
boundary should be ratified according to the country’s legal procedure;
• regional governors along the border should be granted a relative free hand to
deal with the Social concerns of local populations in the disputed areas;
• ethnic minorities in border area should be protected.
• visa requirements should be simplified to facilitate border crossing procedures;
• consulates should be opened in border cities;
• border guards should be trained in border and visa procedures, to stop or
discourage corruption among them and customs authorities, and to prevent
harassment of travelers.
International Crisis Group (2002) Recommendations on border disputes and conflict potential