Transcript Essentials of Understanding Psychology

Essentials of
Understanding Psychology
9th Edition
By Robert Feldman
PowerPoints by Kimberly Foreman
Revised for 9th Ed by Cathleen Hunt
Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011
1
Chapter 7:
Thinking, Language, and Intelligence
2
Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011
MODULE 21: Thinking and Reasoning
• What is thinking?
• What processes underlie reasoning and decision making?
• How do people approach and solve problems?
• What are the major obstacles to problem solving?
3
Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011
Cognitive Psychology
• Branch of psychology that focuses on the study of higher
mental processes, including:
– thinking,
• Manipulation of mental representations of information
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
language,
memory,
problem solving,
knowing,
reasoning,
judging, and
decision making
Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011
4
Mental Images: Examining the Mind’s Eye
• Representations in the mind of an object or event
– Not just visual representations but every modality
5
Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011
Concepts: Categorizing the World
• Concepts
– Mental groupings of similar objects, events, or people.
– Enable us to organize complex phenomena into simpler, usable
categories.
• Prototypes
– Highly representative examples of a concept
– Example:
» Bird prototype: We think Robin, not Ostrich
6
Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011
Algorithms and Heuristics
• Algorithm
– Rule that, if applied appropriately, guarantees a solution to a
problem
• a² + b² = c²
7
Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011
Algorithms and Heuristics
• Heuristic
– Thinking strategy that may lead us to a problem or decision.
– May lead to errors.
• Representativeness heuristic
– Rule we apply when we judge people by the degree to which they
represent a certain category or group of people
• Availability heuristic
– Judging the probability of an event on the basis of how easily the
event can be recalled from memory
8
Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011
Solving Problems: Tower of Hanoi Puzzle
9
Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011
Solving Problems
• Preparation: Understanding and Diagnosing Problems
– Well-Defined Problem
• Both the nature of the problem itself and the information needed to solve
it are available and clear
– Ill-Defined Problem
• Not only the specific nature of the problem is unclear, but the
information required to solve the problem is less obvious
10
Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011
Steps in Problem Solving
11
Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011
Solving Problems
• Preparations: Understanding and Diagnosing Problems
– Kinds of Problems:
• Arrangement problems
• Problems of inducing structure
• Transformation problems (e.g., Hanoi Puzzle)
12
Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011
Solving Problems
• Production: Generating Solutions
– Means-end Analysis
• Involves repeated tests for differences between the desired outcome and
what currently exists
• Most frequently applied heuristic in problem solving
13
Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011
Solving Problems
• Judgment: Evaluating the Solutions
– Final stage in problem solving
– If solution is less concrete or if there is not a single correct
solution, evaluating solutions becomes more difficult.
14
Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011
Solving Problems
• Impediments to Solutions
– Why Is Problem Solving Such a Problem?
• Functional Fixedness
– Tendency to think of an object only in terms of its typical use
• Mental Set
– Tendency for old patterns of problem solving to persist
• Inaccurate evaluation of solutions
– Confirmation bias
» Problem solvers favor initial hypotheses and ignore
contradictory information that supports alternative hypotheses
or solutions
15
Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011
Creativity and Problem Solving
• Creativity
– Ability to generate original ideas or solve problems in novel
ways
• Divergent thinking
– Ability to generate unusual, yet appropriate, responses to problems
or questions
• Convergent thinking
– Produces responses that are based primarily on knowledge and logic
• Cognitive complexity
– Preference for elaborate, intricate, and complex stimuli and thinking
patterns.
• NOT related to intelligence
16
Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011
Thinking Critically and Creatively
• Can we learn to be better Thinkers?
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Redefine problems
Use subgoals
Adopt a critical perspective
Consider the opposite
Use analogies
Think divergently
Use heuristics
Experiment with various solutions
17
Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011
MODULE 22: Language
• How do people use language?
• How does language develop?
18
Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011
Language
• Communication of information through symbols
arranged according to systematic rules
• A central cognitive ability
– Used for communication, thinking, and understanding the world
19
Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011
Grammar: Language’s Language
• Grammar
– System of rules that determines how our thoughts can be
expressed
• Phonology
– Smallest basic units of speech
» Phonemes
• Syntax
– Rules that indicate how words and phrases can be combined to form
sentences
• Semantics
– Meanings of words and sentences
20
Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011
Language Development
• Developing a Way with Words
– Babbling (~ 3 months–1 year of age)
• Speechlike but meaningless sounds
– Critical period
– Production of Language (~ 1 year of age)
• Telegraphic speech
– “I show book” instead of “I show you the book”
• Overgeneralization
– “He eated the cookie” instead of “He ate the cookie”
21
Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011
Understanding Language Acquisition
• Identifying the Roots of Language
• Approaches
– Learning-theory approach
• Following the principles of reinforcement and conditioning
– Nativist approach
• Universal grammar
• Language-acquisition device
– Neural system in the human brain
– Interactionist approach
• Genetically determined predispositions and environmental circumstances
that help teach language
22
Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011
The Influence of Language on Thinking:
• Do Eskimos Have More Words for Snow Than Texans Do?
• Linguistic-relativity hypothesis
– Notion that language shapes and, in fact, may determine the way people in a
specific culture perceive and understand the world
23
Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011
Teaching with Linguistic Variety
• Bilingual Education
– Students learn some subjects in native language while
simultaneously learning English
• Immersion Programs
– Students are immediately plunged into foreign language
instruction in all subjects
• Alternation Model
– Biculturalism
– An effort to maintain an original cultural identity as well as an
integration into an adopted culture
24
Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011
MODULE 23: Intelligence?
• What are the different definitions and conceptions of
intelligence?
• What are the major approaches to measuring intelligence,
and what do intelligence tests measure?
25
Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011
MODULE 23: Intelligence?
• How can the extremes of intelligence be characterized?
• Are traditional IQ tests culturally biased?
• To what degree is intelligence influenced by the
environment, and to what degree by heredity?
26
Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011
Intelligence
• Capacity to understand the world, think rationally, and
use resources effectively when faced with challenges
27
Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011
Theories of Intelligence
• Are There Different Kinds of Intelligence?
• g-factor or “g”
– General factor for mental ability
– Was thought to underlie performance in every aspect of
intelligence
– Recent theories view intelligence as a multidimensional concept
28
Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011
Major Approaches to Intelligence
29
Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011
Theories of Intelligence
• Are There Different Kinds of Intelligence?
• Fluid Intelligence
– Reflects information-processing capabilities, reasoning, and
memory
• Crystallized Intelligence
– Accumulation of information, skills, and strategies that people
learn through experience
30
Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011
Theories of Intelligence
• Are There Different Kinds of Intelligence?
• Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences
– Many ways of showing intelligence
• 8 Different Forms
31
Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011
Theories of Intelligence
• Are There Different Kinds of Intelligence?
• Information Processing as Intelligence
– Information-processing approach
• Way people store material in memory and use that material to solve
intellectual tasks
• Speed of processing
32
Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011
Theories of Intelligence
• Are There Different Kinds of Intelligence?
• Practical Intelligence
– Related to overall success in living
• Emotional Intelligence
– Set of skills that underlie the accurate assessment, evaluation,
expression, and regulation of emotions
33
Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011
Distribution of IQ Scores
34
Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011
Assessing Intelligence
• Contemporary IQ Tests: Gauging Intelligence
– Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale
– Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-IV (WAIS-IV)
– Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-IV (WISC-IV)
35
Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011
Assessing Intelligence
• Contemporary IQ Tests: Gauging Intelligence
– Achievement test
• Designed to determine a person’s level of knowledge in a specific
subject area
– Aptitude test
• Designed to predict a person’s ability in a particular area or line of work
36
Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011
Assessing Intelligence
• Reliability and Validity: Taking the Measure of Tests
– Reliability
• Tests measure consistently what they are trying to measure
– Validity
• Tests actually measure what they are supposed to measure
– Norms
• Standards of test performance that permit the comparison of one
person’s score on a test to scores of others
37
Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011
Assessing Intelligence
• Adaptive Testing: Using Computers
– Adaptive in the sense that the computer individualizes the test
to the test-taker
38
Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011
Variations in Intellectual Ability
• Mental Retardation (Intellectual Disabilities)
– Disability characterized by significant limitations both in
intellectual functioning and in conceptual, social, and practical
adaptive skills
•
•
•
•
Mild = IQ of 55 to 69
Moderate = IQ of 40 to 54
Severe = IQ of 25 to 39
Profound = IQ below 25
39
Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011
Variations in Intellectual Ability
• Identifying the Roots of Mental Retardation
– Fetal alcohol syndrome
• Caused by a mother’s use of alcohol while pregnant
– Familial retardation
• No apparent biological defect exists but there is a history of retardation
in the family
40
Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011
Variations in Intellectual Ability
• Integrating Individuals with Mental Retardation
– Education for All Handicapped Children Act of 1975
– (Public Law 94-142)
•
•
•
•
Entitled to a full education
Least restrictive environment
Mainstreaming
Full inclusion and educational opportunities
41
Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011
Variations in Intellectual Ability
• The Intellectually Gifted
– Have IQ scores greater than 130
– Accounts for 2–4% of the population
– Programs for the gifted are designed to provide enrichment that
allow participants’ talents to flourish
42
Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011
Group Differences in Intelligence
• Genetic and Environmental Determinants
– Background and experiences of test-takers have the potential to
affect results
– Some standardized IQ tests contain elements that discriminate
against minority-group members whose experiences differ from
those of the white majority
43
Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011
The Relative Influence of Genetics and Environment
• Nature, Nurture, and IQ
– Culture-fair IQ Test
• One that does not discriminate against the members of any minority
group
– Heritability
• Measure of the degree to which a characteristic can be attributed to
genetic, inherited factors
44
Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011