Transcript Document

APES year in review
Part II
2011, The
year
everyone
gets a 5!
Food Production-Industrial
Agriculture
Water source…water pollution
Atmosphere…. Pollution
Solid Waste… disposal
Indoor air… pollution
Ch 9: Water
• Figure 9-1 Earth’s water supply
Water Facts
• The primary use for fresh water in U.S. is
for agriculture.
• In our homes, we use the most fresh water
to wash, clean and flush.
• The typical person in an industrialized
nation uses 700-1000 gallons per week!
Human effects on the
Hydrologic Cycle
Figure 9-3 The Hydrologic cycle
The River Is A Continuum
Headwaters
Mid-Reach
Lower Reach
CPO
M
Photosynthesis
Collector
s
FPOM
CPO
M
Detritus
Sediment
Producer
s
FPOM
Collectors &
Shredders
Collector
s&
Grazers
Producer
s
A watershed is a drainage basin
• Otherwise known as a
Catchment is a region
of interconnected
rivers and streams
which functions as a
unified system for
water transport.
The
actions
we take
affect our
downstre
am
rivers,
lakes and
estuaries
• Figure 9-5a Global air circulation
Arid-Desert-Dry
Rain shadow
Figure 9-6 Rain shadow
The Ogallala Aquifer
Figure 9-16 Exploitation of an aquifer
The Ogallala Aquifer
Mono Lake
• Excellent example of human interference with
the water supply.
• The water in the lake was diverted from the
lake to the city of Los Angeles. It became a
salt bed.
• ↑ Salt concentration due to evaporation
Three Gorges Dam in China
• China needs to meet the growing demand for
energy
• Huge environmental impact
• Hundreds of thousands of people will be
displaced (not to mention the ecosystems
which will be flooded)
Food
Air
•Greenhouse gas emissions from fossil fuels
•Other air pollutants from fossil fuels
•Pollutions from pesticide sprays
Water
Soil
•
•
•
•
•
•Aquifer depletion
Erosion
Loss of fertility
Salinization
Waterlogging
Desertification
•Increased runoff and flooding from
land cleared to grow crops
•Fish kills from pesticide runoff
•Surface and groundwater pollution
from pesticides and fertilizers
•Over fertilization of lakes >>
eutrophication
Major Environmental Effects of Food
Production
Biodiversity Loss
• Loss and degradation of habitat
from clearing grasslands and forests
and draining wetlands
• Fish kills from pesticide runoff
• Killing of wild predators to protect
live stock
• Loss of genetic diversity from
replacing thousands of wild crop
strains with a few monoculture
strains
Human Health
•Nitrates in drinking water
•Pesticide residues in drinking
water, food, and air
•Contamination of drinking
and swimming water with
disease organisms from
livestock wastes
Types, Effects, Sources of Water
Pollution
– water is polluted by infectious bacteria,
inorganic and organic chemicals, and excess
heat
• water pollution: any chemical, biological, or
physical change in water quality that has a harmful
effect on living organisms
• the WHO estimates that 3.4 million people/yr
people die prematurely from waterborne diseases
• an estimated 1.5 million people/yr in U.S. become
ill from infectious agents
Fecal coliform bacteria
Water quality and dissolved oxygen
Types, Effects, Sources of Water
Pollution
– water pollution can come from a single source
or variety of dispersed sources
• point sources discharge at specific locations
– examples: drainpipes, sewer lines
– easy to identify, monitor, and regulate
• non-point sources are scattered and diffuse and
can’t be traced to any single site of discharge
– examples: runoff from croplands, livestock feedlots
– difficult and expensive to identify and control these
discharges
Point and nonpoint sources
Types, Effects, Sources of Water
Pollution
– sources of water pollution, cont.
• leading sources: agriculture, industries, mining
– agricultural activities:
» erosion
» overgrazing
» fertilizers
» pesticides
» excess salt from irrigated soils
Types, Effects, Sources of Water
Pollution
– too much rain and too little rain can increase
water pollution
• increased moisture with more intense rains can
flush harmful chemicals, plant nutrients, and
microorganisms into waterways
• Prolonged rains reduce solar energy and reduce
photosynthesis
• prolonged drought can reduce river flows so there
is less dilution available
• warmer water contains less dissolved oxygen
Causes of
Acid Rain
• Sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) are the primary causes of
acid rain.
• In the US, about 2/3 of all SO2 and 1/4 of all NOx comes from electric
power generation that relies on burning fossil fuels like coal.
Pollution of Freshwater Streams
– streams can recover from moderate levels of
degradable water pollutants if the flows are
not reduced
• dilution and biodegradation can allow recovery of
stream pollution if:
– they are not overloaded
– do not have reduced flow due to damming, agricultural
diversion, or drought
Pollution of Freshwater Streams
– stream recovery, cont.
• breakdown of pollutants by bacteria creates an
oxygen sag curve
– organisms with a high oxygen demand can’t survive in
the curve
– factors in size of curve:
» volume of the stream
» volume of wastes entering
» flow rate
» temperature
» pH levels
Know this Oxygen sag Curve
Dilution and decay of wastes
Investigating BOD
Amount of dissolved
oxygen needed by aerobic decomposers to break
down the organic materials in a given volume of
water at a certain temperature over a specified
time period
Distilled
water
Pollutant (milk)
yeast
Color
Indicator
Investigating BOD Amount of dissolved oxygen needed by aerobic decomposers to
break down the organic materials in a given volume of water at a certain temperature
Initial Demonstration Both
started Dark BluePicture taken after 10 min at
28deg Celcius-(84 F)
Test Tube A the
control contains
distilled water,
yeast and
methylene Blue
Test Tube B
contains 10ml milk,
yeast and
methylene Blue
Initial Demonstration Both
started Dark BluePicture taken after 20 min at
28deg Celcius-(84 F)
After about 1 hr the tubes began to
change color.
Why are those to the left darker?
(BOD) Control
1/16
1/8
¼
½
full concentrationm
Ultimate results BOD level
obvious G
Greater the BOD stronger the
reattion…
More white… the more oxygen
present
(BOD) Control
milk
1/16
1/8
¼
½
full concentration
Pollution of Freshwater Streams
– most developed countries have reduced point
source pollution, but toxic chemicals and
pollution from non-point sources are still
problems
• the U.S. has avoided increases in pollution from
point sources in most streams
• cleanup of rivers: Cuyahoga River in Ohio and the
Thames River in Great Britain
• there are sometimes large fish kills, and
contamination of drinking water from industry,
mining, and non-point runoff of fertilizers and
pesticides
Pollution of Freshwater Streams
– stream pollution in most developing countries
is a serious and growing problem
• half of the world’s 500 major rivers are heavily
polluted
• many run through developing countries where
waste treatment is minimal or nonexistent
Pollution of Freshwater
Streams
– the Ganges River in India is severally polluted
• ~350 million people live in the Ganges River basin
with little treatment of sewage
• Hindu beliefs compound problem
– air pollution from cremated bodies
– water pollution from bodies thrown in river
• government solutions:
– waste treatment plants in the 29 large cities along the
Ganges
– electric crematoriums on its banks
– introduction of snapping turtles as body scavengers
Pollution of Freshwater Lakes
– lakes are less effective at diluting pollutants
that enter them
• often stratified with little vertical mixing
• very little flow occurring
• may take from 1–100 years to flush and change
water in lakes and reservoirs
• much more vulnerable to runoff contamination of
all kinds of materials
• chemical concentrations build up as they pass
through the food webs in lakes
Biomagnification of PCBs
Pollution of Freshwater Lakes
– human activities can reduce dissolved oxygen
and kill some aquatic species
• natural eutrophication: nutrient enrichment of
lakes from runoff
– depends on composition of the surrounding drainage
basin
– can enrich abundance of desirable organisms
• cultural eutrophication occurs due to runoff
– usually near urban or agricultural areas and in coastal
water, enclosed estuaries, and bays
– can lead to serious pollution problems
Oligotrophic lake
Eutrophic lake
Cultural eutrophication
Pollution of Freshwater Lakes
– human activities, cont.
• cultural eutrophication, cont.
– the EPA states that 85% of large lakes near major
population centers in U.S. have some amount of cultural
eutrophication
– can be reduced or prevented by:
» banning or limiting phosphates in detergents
» advanced treatment methods to remove nitrates and
phosphates from wastewater
» use of soil conservation to reduce runoff
Lake Washington
Pollution of Groundwater
– the extent of groundwater contamination is
generally unknown
• EPA and U.S. Geological Survey figures state that
one or more organic chemicals contaminate about
45% of municipal groundwater supplies in the U.S.
• ~26,000 industrial waste ponds and lagoons in
U.S. do not have a liner to prevent seepage
• many underground storage tanks have leaks
• determining the extent of a leak is costly, and the
cost of cleanup is more costly yet
Groundwater contamination
20-4 Pollution of Groundwater
– groundwater contamination, cont.
• nitrates can contaminate groundwater, esp. in
agricultural areas; form nitrites in the body
• arsenic is released into drinking water when a well
is drilled into arsenic-rich soils and rock
– WHO estimates that more than 112 million people drink
water containing 5–100 times the recommended level of
10 parts/billion
– Bangladesh has a serious problem with arsenic, but the
UN and several NGOs have begun to assess wells and
tag them
20-4 Pollution of Groundwater
– prevention is the most effective and affordable
way to protect groundwater from pollutants
• underground tanks in the U.S. and some other
developed countries are now strictly regulated
• old, leaky tanks are being removed, and the
surrounding soils are being treated
Fig. 20-10 Groundwater
pollution
20-6 Preventing Surface Water
Pollution
– reduce non-point pollution by preventing it
from reaching bodies of surface water
• agricultural non-point pollution can be reduced by:
–
–
–
–
–
reducing soil erosion
reducing fertilizer use; slow-release fertilizer
reforestation of watersheds
keeping cover crops on farmland
planting buffer zones between farmland and surface
water nearby
– relying more on bio controls than pesticides
• EPA required to require 15,500 of the largest
feedlots to apply for EPA permits
20-6 Preventing Surface Water
Pollution
– most developing countries do not have laws
to set water pollution standards
• most cities in developing countries discharge 80–
90% of untreated sewage water used for drinking,
bathing, and washing clothes
• in U.S., the Clean Water Act sets standards for
allowed levels of key water pollutants and requires
polluters to obtain permits to discharge pollutants
into aquatic systems
• EPA is experimenting with a discharge trading
policy using credits
20-6 Preventing Surface Water
Pollution
– septic tanks and sewage treatment can
reduce point-source water pollution
• ~1/4 of homes in U.S. served by septic tanks
• most urban areas served by sewage treatment
plants
• some 1,200 cities have combined storm runoff and
sewer lines because it is cheaper; can overflow
• sewer systems in the U.S. are estimated to cost
$10 billion a year for 10 years to install, expand,
and repair the aging sewer network
20-6 Preventing Surface Water
Pollution
– water pollution laws have significantly
improved water quality in U.S.
• improvements:
– 1992 to 2002, communities served by water systems
meeting federal guidelines increased from 79% to 94%
– fishable and swimmable streams increased from 36% to
60% of those tested
– topsoil loss through runoff was cut by 111 billion metric
tons annually (%?)
– annual wetland losses decreased by 80%
20-6 Preventing Surface Water
Pollution
– water pollution laws have significantly
improved water quality in U.S., cont.
• problem areas:
– in 2000, 40% of streams and 45% of lakes surveyed
were too polluted for swimming or fishing
– animal waste and waste lagoons
– fish unsafe to eat (pesticides, Hg, etc.)
– in 2003, the EPA found that >50% of the 6,000 largest
industrial facilities have been illegally discharging wastes
into waterways
20-6 Preventing Surface Water
Pollution
– a 2001 report by EPA’s inspector general calls
for strengthening the Clean Water Act
• increased funding, increased authority to control
non-point pollution, modernizing monitoring
system, increasing compliance with the law
• integrating watershed and airshed planning to
protect ground and surface water sources
• halt the loss of wetlands; increase standards for
wetland restoration; and create new wetlands
before filling existing ones
• farmers feel they should be compensated for
property value losses that result from federal
regulations protecting wetlands
20-7 Drinking Water Quality
– 20% of people lack safe drinking water
• 95% of people in developed countries and 74% of
people in developing countries have access to
clean drinking water
• the UN estimates $23 billion/yr for 8–10 yr to bring
clean drinking water to those lacking it
– centralized water treatment plants can provide
safe drinking water; water is settled, filtered,
and chlorinated
20-7 Drinking Water Quality
– the U.S. is upgrading water purification and
delivery systems
• hard to secure
• also difficult to adequately poison
• both chemical and biological indicators are being
developed to indicate contamination
20-7 Drinking Water Quality
– several simple, inexpensive ways for
individuals and villages to purify drinking
water have been developed
• exposure of contaminated water to intense sunlight
in a clear plastic bottle kills bacteria
• filtering water through cloth reduces risk of cholera
• a small amount of chlorine in a plastic or clay
storage vessel cuts the rate of diarrheal disease in
half
20-7 Drinking Water Quality
– about 54 countries have standards for safe
drinking water
• levels have been established called maximum
contaminant levels for any pollutants that may
adversely affect human health
• privately owned wells don’t have to meet these
standards
• some want the standards to be strengthened
• certain industries want to weaken the Safe
Drinking Water Act (which industries?)
20-7 Drinking Water Quality
– some bottled water is not as pure as tap water
and costs much more
• bottled water is vastly more expensive than tap
water
– 1/4 is tap water
– 1/3 is contaminated with bacteria
– 1/5 is contaminated with organic chemicals
•
•
•
•
creates lots of waste
manufacture releases toxic gases and liquids
have home water tested
be wary of companies claiming EPA approval
20-7 Drinking Water Quality
– we need to shift priorities to preventing and
reducing water pollution
• bottom-up political pressure on elected officials
has reduced point-source water pollution
• a shift needs to be made to how we can prevent
water pollution in the first place
• prevention of water pollution will take action from
individuals and groups to pressure elected officials
The Green Revolution
• To eliminate hunger by improving crop performance
• Movement to increase yields by using:
–
–
–
–
–
New crop cultivars
Irrigation
Fertilizers
Pesticides
Mechanization
Results:
•
•
•
•
•
Did not eliminate famine
Population still increasing
Increase cost of production
An increased negative environmental impact
Didn’t work for everyone
Chapter 13: Fossil
Fuels
Exxon Valdez, Drilling in ANWR
Coal-several (400) hundred
years
Natural Gas – at least a 50
year supply in the United
States
Oil- Peak Oil passed
More Energy Facts
• We get 50% of our crude oil from foreign
sources
• Alaska pipeline built to help increase
production of domestic crude oil
• Types of coal:
• Peat (not coal)  Lignite (brown coal) 
Bituminous coal (soft coal with high sulfur) 
Anthracite (hard coal with low sulfur)
1. Energy Resources
2. Oil
3. Natural Gas
4. Coal
5. Nuclear Energy
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Important energy facts
• Brief history of energy
*1700-1800 Fire wood
*1900-1920 Coal
*1950- now crude oil
• “production of crude oil” = with drawing it from
reserves
• OPEC (pg 319) organization of petroleum
exporting countries (Mid-east countries mainly)
Changes in U.S. Energy
Use
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Electricity
1. Electricity is a secondary energy source because it relies on
another energy source to create the electricity.
2. Basic production of electricity-boil water to produce steam to
turn turbines to generate electron flow through a wire.
3. Examples of primary sources for electrical production
1. 20% from nuclear
2. 57% from coal
3. Oil, geothermal, solar, wind, hydroelectric (no boiling water
required for these sources)
Is electricity a clean energy source?
Coal
• Environmental Consequences
1. Production: ecosystem damage, reclamation
difficult, acid mine runoff, mine tailings,
erosion, black lung, radon
2. Transport: energy intensive because of weight
and number of train cars needed
3. Use: fossil fuel with largest source of carbon
dioxide and greatest quantity of contaminants,
large volume of waste, acid precipitation
Coal: Supply and
Demand
• Coal exists in many forms therefore a
chemical formula cannot be written for it.
• Coalification: After plants died they
underwent chemical decay to form a
product known as peat
– Over many years, thick peat layers formed.
– Peat is converted to coal by geological events
such as land subsidence which subject the
peat to great pressures and temperatures.
Ranks of Coal
• Lignite: A brownish-black coal of low quality (i.e.,
low heat content per unit) with high inherent
moisture and volatile matter. Energy content is
lower 4000 BTU/lb.
• Subbituminous: Black lignite, is dull black and
generally contains 20 to 30 percent moisture
Energy content is 8,300 BTU/lb.
• Bituminous: most common coal is dense and
black (often with well-defined bands of bright and
dull material). Its moisture content usually is less
than 20 percent. Energy content about 10,500
Btu / lb.
• Anthracite :A hard, black lustrous coal, often
referred to as hard coal, containing a high
percentage of fixed carbon and a low percentage
of volatile matter. Energy content of about
www.uvawise.edu/philosophy/Hist%20295/ Powerpoint%5CCoal.ppt
Advantages and Disadvantages
Pros
•Most abundant fossil fuel
•Major U.S. reserves
•300 yrs. at current consumption rates
•High net energy yield
Cons
•Dirtiest fuel, highest carbon dioxide
•Major environmental degradation
•Major threat to health
© Brooks/Cole Publishing Company / ITP
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Sulfur in Coal
• When coal is burned, sulfur is released
primarily as sulfur dioxide (SO2 - serious
pollutant)
– Coal Cleaning - Methods of removing sulfur
from coal include cleaning, solvent refining,
gasification, and liquefaction Scrubbers are
used to trap SO2 when coal is burned
– Two chief forms of sulfur is inorganic (FeS2
or CaSO4) and organic (Sulfur bound to
Acid Mine
Drainage
The impact of
mine drainage
on a lake after
receiving
effluent from an
abandoned
tailings
impoundment
for over 50
years
Mine effluent
discharging from
the bottom of a
waste rock pile
Oil: The Most Important Fossil
Fuel in the American Economy
Environmental Consequences
1. Production: local
ecosystems damage
possible
2. Transport: oil spills cause
local and regional
ecosystem damage
3. Use: photochemical smog,
particulates, acid
precipitation, carbon dioxide
Natural Gas
Possibly a transition fuel between fossil fuel
and alternative energy sources.
•
Environmental
Consequences:
1. Production: local ecosystem
damage possible if oil or
coal is part of the deposit
2. Transport: can be explosive
3. Use: produces the least air
pollutants of all the fossil
fuels
Sources of Natural Gas
•Russia & Kazakhstan - almost 40% of
world's supply.
•Iran (15%), Qatar (5%), Saudi Arabia
(4%), Algeria (4%), United States (3%),
Nigeria (3%), Venezuela (3%);
•90–95% of natural gas in U.S. domestic
(~411,000 km = 255,000 miles of
pipeline).
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billion cubic metres
Nuclear Power
A. Pros: No CO2 emissions, no particulate
emissions
B. Cons: Radiation can lead to damaged DNA,
costs, radioactive waste, thermal pollution
C. Basically- the splitting of uranium’s
nucleus gives off heat that can be used to
boil water and turn a turbo generator to
create electricity.
D. Naturally occurring Uranium is mined.
Nuclear important facts
• Fusion- the combination of 2 atoms to
form a larger atom
• Fission- splitting an atom
• Nuclear Regulatory Commission is the US
governmental Agency that regulates
nuclear power plants
• Radioisotope= unstable radioactive
isotope
Uranium
• Uranium 235 has 92 protons and 143 neutrons.
It is radioactive and used as fuel in nuclear
reactors.
• When U235 is hit by a neutron, it is split (fission)
into two smaller elements such as Kr and Ba
plus three neutrons which sustain the chain
reaction.
• Most (99.3%) of the naturally occurring uranium
is U238.
• For a nuclear reactor, this must be purified to 4%
U235 and 96% U238. (very expensive)
D. How does a Power Plant
Operate?
a. Water moderator: slows
down neutrons
b. Neutron-absorbing
material- control rod
c. Fuel Rodsapproximately one third
replaced each year
d. Heat transfer system
e. Cooling system
f. Redundant safety
systems
Waste Disposal
All fuel rods are still in
cooling ponds at
commercial nuclear
facilities
Proposed site for
disposal - Yucca
Mountain in SE
Nevada
Concerns: Geological
active area, Intrusion
of water table,
distances for wastes
travel, radioactive
Accidents
• Chernobyl:
– 4/26/86
– Ukraine
– complete meltdown.
• Three Mile Island:
– 3/28/79
– Pennsylvania (Harrisburg)
– partial meltdown, no one known to be hurt.
Nonrenewable
Mineral
Resource
Depletion
Curves
Source: Miller, G. Tyler, Living In The
Environment. (2000) Wadsworth
Publishing. New York.
Environmental Impact of Mining
Nuclear Energy
• In a conventional nuclear power
plant
–a controlled nuclear fission chain
reaction
–heats water
–produce high-pressure steam
–that turns turbines
–generates electricity.
Nuclear Energy
Controlled Fission
Chain Reaction
neutrons split the
nuclei of atoms such
as of Uranium or
Plutonium
release energy (heat)
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UtubeVideo
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Radioactivity
• Types
• Alpha particles consist of 2 protons and 2 neutrons,
and therefore are positively charged
• Beta particles are negatively charged (electrons)
• Gamma rays have no mass or charge, but are a form
of electromagnetic radiation (similar to X-rays)
• Sources of natural radiation
•
•
•
•
•
Soil
Rocks
Air
Water
Cosmic rays
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Radioactive Waste
1. Low-level radiation (Gives of low amount of
radiation)
• Sources: nuclear power plants, hospitals &
universities
• 1940 – 1970 most was dumped into the ocean
• Today deposit into landfills
2. High-level radiation (Gives of large amount of
radiation)
• Fuel rods from nuclear power plants
• Half-time of Plutonium 239 is 24000 years
• No agreement about a safe method of storage
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Chernobyl
• April 26, 1986, reactor explosion (Ukraine) flung
radioactive debris into atmosphere
• Health ministry reported 3,576 deaths
• Green Peace estimates32,000 deaths;
• About 400,000 people were forced to leave their
homes
• ~160,000 sq km (62,00 sq mi) contaminated
• > Half million people exposed to dangerous levels of
radioactivity
• Cost of incident > $358 billion
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Protection of Biodiversity and
Ecosystems
• Threatened – if the trend continues, the species will be
endangered.
•Endangered – if the trend continues, the species will go
extinct.
•Pharmaceuticals and native plants  Approximately 25%
of drugs used as medicines come from natural plant
sources.
•The Exxon Valdez Oil Spill (1989)  300,000 birds died as
a result of that particular oil spill. The area, Prince William
Sound, is still recovering.
Renewable Energy
•Sunlight, wind, falling H2O, geothermal
•Not fossil fuels, not nuclear
Indirect Solar power
•
•
•
•
•
•
How does it affect…
Wind?
Hydropower?
Firewood?
Hydro carbon fuels?
Nuclear and Geothermal are not indirect
solar
Solar Energy
Passive solar
• Large south-facing windows, heavy drapes to trap
heat at night, interior bricks to trap heat
• Shade windows in summer
• Even though back up systems are required, and
solar heating may only lessen the need for
heating oil a few %, it will help us adapt to
diminishing oil supplies.
Active solar
• Photovoltaic (PV) panels can be used to convert
the energy from the sun into electricity.
• Electrons from the silicon in the PV panel are
“pushed” through a wire by photons from the sun
creating an electric current.
Risks and Pests
Borneo (DDT), MTBE
Hazard - Anything that causes:
1. Injury, disease, or death to humans
2. Damage to property
3. Destruction of the environment
Cultural hazard - a risk that a person
chooses to engage in
Risk
The probability of suffering (1, 2, or 3)
as a result of a hazard
Perception
What people think the risks are
Cigarette Smoking
• Leading cause of cancer in U.S.
• Can cause cancer, lung disease, a
bigger risk of death in addition with
other types of air pollution.
• Highest health risk in U.S.
Insecticides/Pestici
des
• Integrated pest management includes:
–
–
–
–
–
adjusting environmental conditions
chemical pesticides
disease resistant varieties
crop rotation
biological controls
• Insecticides kills plants, mammals, fish, birds
• A broad spectrum pesticide is effective
towards many types of pests
• DDT accumulates in fat
body tissues of animals
• DDT was not used for
handling weeds
• DDT is, persistent,
synthetic organic
compound and a subject to
biomagnifications in food
chains
Diseases
• Lyme disease can be
processed to humans
through a bite from an
infected tick
• Mosquitoes causes
Malaria, the vector for
Plasmodium
• The protozoan of the
genus Plasmodium is the
causative agent of
malaria
Diseases cont’d
• Lack of access to safe drinking water is a
major cause of disease transmission in
developing countries.
• Epidemiology is the study of the
presence, distribution and control of a
diseases in a population
• Morbidity is the incidence of disease in a
population
• Mortality is the incidence of death in a
population
Water Pollution
• Sewage treatment is a common practice
• In the 1970’s many cities were still dumping
raw sewage into waterways
• In 1972, the Clean water act provided
funding for upgrading sewage treatment
plants
• Currently water ways are the much better
• 1°, 2° use preliminary but no more
• Test for sewage contamination in drinking
H2O  Fecal Coliform test
Sewage Treatment
• Raw sewage (99% H2O)
Preliminary Treatment- allow grit to
settle
1° separating Raw Sludge from H2O
2° AKA Biological Treatmentbacteria feeds on the organic
material
Trickling filters contain bacteria 
remove raw sludge from the H2O
• Raw Sludge May contain heavy metals
If it does it needs 3° treatment, to remove the
toxic chemicals
Home Septic Systems:
do not use Chlorine
Do use settling tank to settle organic
solids
Lets waste water percolate into the
soil bacterial decomposition
Municipal Solid Waste
• 210,000,000 tons of municipal solid waste (MSW) are
disposed of annually in the United States.
• Most of that waste is paper.
• Fifty-five percent of MSW is disposed of in landfills.
• 17% of MSW is combusted, mostly in waste-to-energy
(WTE) combustion facilities. What are the advantages and
disadvantages of WTE combustion?
• The best solution to solid waste problems is to reduce waste
at its source.
• More than 75% of MSW is recyclable. What role is recycling
playing in waste management, and how is recycling best
promoted?
• Much more can be done to move MSW management in a
more sustainable direction. What are some
recommendations to improve MSW management?
Ch 20: Hazardous Waste
Halogenated hydrocarbons
• Organic compounds with a halogen
(bromine, iodine, ect.) replacing a
hydrogen
• Used as pesticides
• Used to make plastic
• Resistant to biodegradation
Chlorinated hydrocarbons
•
•
•
•
Chlorinated hydrocarbons
Are synthetic organic compounds
Dioxin
Mainly caused by burning PVC pipe
(medical waste)
• Linked to cancer.
• Also an endocrine disruptor.
Love Canal, NY
• The government allowed housing to be build over the
toxic waste dump and people got sick
• Problem first discovered in 1978
• First national emergency in the US because of toxic
waste
• Led to the superfund legislation.
Superfund sites:
• $ comes from taxes on chemical industries
• 50% of the $ spent on legal costs
Pollution
Air, Solid, Water
Animation of CO2Emmission
• Climate Change Video
Composition of the troposphere
• 78% N2
• 20% O2
• Less than 2%
•
•
•
•
H2O vapor (.01%-4%)
Argon gas (1%)
CO2 (0.04%)
Trace gases
The star pollutants mentioned are sulfur dioxide,
nitrogen dioxide and particulates caused by an
assortment of methods such as burning fossil fuels, bi
products of power plants or even particles that include
lead, dust ammonia and other harmful substances
Major Outdoor Air
Pollutants
•
•
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Primary – direct products of combustion and
evaporation
Secondary – when primary pollutants undergo further
reactions in atmosphere
Suspended particulate matter (primary)
Volatile Organic Compounds (secondary)
Carbon Monoxide (primary)
Nitrogen Oxides (can be both)
Sulfur Oxides(primary from combustion of coal)
Ozone and other photochemical oxidants (secondary)
Carbon Monoxide
•Properties:
colorless,
odorless,
heavier than air,
0.0036% of
atmosphere
•Effects: binds
tighter to Hb
than O2, mental
functions and
visual acuity,
even at low
levels
•Sources:
incomplete
combustion of
fossil fuels 60 95% from auto
exhaust
•Class: carbon
oxides (CO2,
CO)
Lead
•Properties:
grayish metal
•Effects:
accumulates in
tissue; affects
kidneys, liver
and nervous
system
(children most
susceptible);
mental
retardation;
possible
carcinogen;
20% of inner
city kids have
[high]
•Sources:
particulates,
smelters,
batteries
•Class: toxic or
heavy metals
Nitrogen Oxides
Ozone
Particulate Matter
Sulfur Dioxide
•Properties:
reddish brown
gas, formed as
fuel burnt in
car, strong
oxidizing agent,
forms Nitric
acid in air
•Effects: acid
rain, lung and
heart problems,
decreased
visibility
(yellow haze),
suppresses plant
growth
•Sources: fossil
fuels
combustion @
higher
temperatures,
power plants,
forest fires,
volcanoes,
bacteria in soil
•Class:
Nitrogen oxides
(NOx)
•Properties:
colorless,
unpleasant
odor, major part
of
photochemical
smog
•Effects: lung
irritant,
damages plants,
rubber, fabric,
eyes, 0.1 ppm
can lower PSN
by 50%,
•Sources:
Created by
sunlight acting
on NOx and
VOC ,
photocopiers,
cars, industry,
gas vapors,
chemical
solvents,
incomplete fuel
combustion
products
•Class:
photochemical
oxidants
•Properties:
particles
suspended in air
(<10 um)
•Effects: lung
damage,
mutagenic,
carcinogenic,
teratogenic
•Sources:
burning coal or
diesel,
volcanoes,
factories,
unpaved roads,
plowing, lint,
pollen, spores,
burning fields
•Class: SPM:
dust, soot,
asbestos, lead,
PCBs, dioxins,
pesticides
•Properties:
colorless gas
with irritating
odor
•Effects:
produces acid
rain (H2SO4),
breathing
difficulties,
eutrophication
due to sulfate
formation,
lichen and moss
are indicators
•Sources:
burning high
sulfur coal or
oil, smelting or
metals, paper
manufacture
•Class: sulfur
oxides
•Combines with
water and NH4
to increase soil
fertility
VOC
•Properties: organic
compounds
(hydrocarbons) that
evaporate easily, usually
aromatic
•Effects: eye and
respiratory irritants;
carcinogenic; liver, CNS,
or kidney damage;
damages plants; lowered
visibility due to brown
haze; global warming
•Sources: vehicles
(largest source),
evaporation of solvents
or fossil fuels, aerosols,
paint thinners, dry
cleaning
•Class: HAPs
(Hazardous Air
Pollutants)
•Methane
•Benzene
•Chlorofluorocarbons
(CFCs), etc.
NASA Video
on Ozone
Hole
Stratospheric ozone depletion
CFCs persist in the stratosphere.
They split oxygen atoms off ozone (O3) to form
oxygen (O2).
1 Cl atom
can split
many O3
molecules
Ozone (O3)
Tropospheric ozone is BAD
•If we breath it, it causes lung damage
•It is also a greenhouse gas
Stratospheric ozone is GOOD
– It shields us from the harmful UVB rays of
the sun.
– Ozone depletion is the thinning of the
stratospheric ozone shield (mostly over the
South Pole, Australia story)
– Analogy – Stratospheric O3 is like sunscreen
for the earth.
Primary Pollutants
CO CO2
SO2 NO NO2
Most hydrocarbons
Most suspended
particles
Natural
Sources
Mobile
Secondary Pollutants
SO3
HNO3
H 2 O2
H2SO4
O3
PANs
–
Most NO3 and SO24 – salts
Stationary
More
H+
More
OH-
Industrial smog
Chemistry of
industrial smog:
• Burning sulfur-rich
oil or coal creates
SO2, SO3, sulfuric
acid, ammonium
sulfate.
• Carbon leads to
CO2 and CO.
Photochemical Smog
UV radiation
Primary Pollutants
Secondary Pollutants
NO2 + Hydrocarbons
HNO3
O3
nitric acid ozone
H2O + O2
Auto Emissions
Photochemical Smog
Smog Forms
...when polluted air is stagnant
(weather conditions, geographic location)
Los Angeles, CA
Photochemical smog
Mexico City,ancient lakebed surrounded by mountains is just one of the
world’s cities suffer from the brownish
Air pollution
• Expensive: health care costs, human lives
•
-acute
- Chronic
- Carcinogenic
• Damages buildings, bridges, statues, books
• Aesthetics
• Damage to Plants
- Agriculture – crops loss ~$5 billion/year
- Forests
Sources of air
pollution
• Natural:
a. Sulfur: Volcanoes, sea spray, microbial
b. Nitrogen oxides: lightening, forest fires,
microbial
• Anthropogenic (human caused)
a. Sulfur oxides: coal burning plants, industry,
fossil fuels.
b. Nitrogen oxides: power plants, industrial fuel
combustion, transportation
c. Effect areas hundreds of miles from the source
of emissions, generally not the whole globe
Household Hazardous Waste
• Common household items such as paints,
cleaners, oils, batteries, and pesticides contain
hazardous components
• Labels – danger, warning, caution, toxic,
corrosive, flammable, or poison identify products
that might contain hazardous materials
• Leftover portions of these products are called
household hazardous waste (HHW)
• These products, if mishandled, can be
dangerous to your health and the environment
Indoor Air Pollutants
• 1. Types: benzene, formaldehyde,
radon, cigarette smoke
• 2. Sources: off gassing from
furniture, rugs and building
materials, dry cleaning, cleaning
fluids, disinfectants, pesticides,
heaters
• 3. Buildings with too many indoor
air pollutants are called “sick
buildings” because more than
20% of the people are sick due to
occupying the building.
Factors Effecting Climate Change
•
•
•
•
•
Wobble of the planet
Albedo-reflectiveness
Cloud cover
Pollution- Aerosols and particulates
Ocean absorbing heat, absorbing CO2…
Earth’s climate system
Milankovitch cycles
These 3 types of cycles also affect climate in
the long term.
Variation of
Earth’s tilt
Variation of
Earth’s orbit
Wobble of
Earth’s axis
Oceans and climate
video
from
Nasa
If global warming causes enough of Greenland’s ice sheet to melt,
freshwater runoff into the north Atlantic could shut down current and
abruptly change the climate of Europe and eastern North America.
Normal
conditions
El Niño andIn an
LaElNiña
Niño event, winds
weaken, warm water
sloshes to the east, and
prevents the cold
upwelling.
La Niña is the opposite:
Cold water spreads west.
Jakata Sudan
Wasting Resources
•United States
– 4.6% of the world's
population
– 33% of the world's solid
waste
– 75% of its hazardous
waste
Agriculture Waste
• Livestock produce sewage
– 200,000 hens, 1200 head of cattle in a
feedlot, & 10,500 hogs may produce as
much waste as 20,000 people
– In the U.S., there are 337 million hen,
96.1 million head of cattle & 58.7 million
hogs which produce twice as much
sewage as all the humans in the U.S.
Solid Waste
Story of Stuff Video
• 98.5% is from
–1. Mining
–2. Oil and gas production
–3. Agriculture
–4. Sewage treatment
–5. Industry
• 1.5% is municipal solid waste
(MSW)
Municipal Solid Waste
• MSW—more commonly known as trash or
garbage—consists of everyday items
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Product packaging
Grass clippings
Furniture
Clothing
Bottles
Food scraps
Newspapers
Appliances
Paint
Batteries
What do we do with it?
A Modern Landfill
Incineration
http://www.epa.gov/epaoswer/non-hw/muncpl/facts.htm
Landfill Design
Superfund Legislation
Love Canal Part 1 and Part 2
• Comprehensive Environmental
Response, Compensation, and
Liabilities Act (CERCLA); 1980
– “Superfund” to clean up abandoned
sites
– Hazard Ranking System (HRS)
– National Priority List (NPL)
– Reauthorized in 1986 (SARA)
Global warming
The greenhouse effect is natural and
important to deep the earth warm enough for
life to exist
• Global warming occurs when humans
contribute too much of these greenhouse
gases leading to a small (1-3 degree C)
but significant rise in the global average
temperature.
• Analogy – Car on a sunny day
Acids and Bases
pH-log of hydrogen ions in a solution.
Therefore each number higher on the pH
scale is 10X more basic
• Basic- OH- (hydroxyl ions) over 7 on the
pH scale
• Acidic-H+ ions under 7 on the pH scale
• Neutral- pure water is 7 on the pH scale
• Normal rain is slightly acidic-pH 6.4
• Acid rain is defined as less than a pH of
5.5
Solutions: Reducing
Emissions
•
Best way = Conservation, just use
less!
Input Control
a. Cleaner burning gasoline
b. increased fuel efficiency
c. alternative modes of
transportation
d. decrease the number of miles
driven
e. changes in land use decisions
f. catalytic converter
Output Control
A. Scrubbers: exhaust
fumes through a spray
of H2O containing lime
(CaCO3) SO2 
CaSO3
B. Coal washing to get
rid of sulfur
C. Fluidized bed
combustion (produces
a waste ash that must
be disposed of)