Transcript Slayt 1

Nomenclature in Latin
•
Castanea sativa, sweet chestnut.
•
Sativum, Sativus, and Sativa - adjectives meaning cultivated,
•
Sativa derived from the Latin satum, meaning to sow.
•
'season' derives also from satum, as 'appropriate time for sowing'.
•
Sativa ends in -a, because it is the feminine form of the adjective,
•
masculine (-us) and neuter (-um) endings are used to agree with the gender of the nouns
•
Crocus sativus – Saffron (masculine), Pisum sativum– Pea (neuter).
•
Ranunculus=buttercup muricatus=rough
•
Sinapis=Mustard arvensis =in the fields.
M.S. IQBAL, A. GHAFOOR, INAMULLAH, H. AHMAD. 2013. Pak. J. Bot., 45(6):
2065-2070.
GENETIC VARIATION IN YIELD PERFORMANCE FOR THREE YEARS
IN NIGELLA SATIVA L. GERMPLASM AND ITS ASSOCIATION WITH
MORPHO-PHYSIOLOGICAL
TRAITS
AND
BIOCHEMICAL
COMPOSITION.
GRAPES
• Domestication began 6,000–8,000 years
ago in the Near East-cultivation in Asia
5000 BC.
• Often the Mediterranean as the home
for all grapes, actually native to regions
in Asia, Africa, North America.
• Most widely cultivated grape speciesVitis vinifera (Asia-1 native grape Amur grape
Vitis amurensis ), & several 1000 var. of this
grape exist.
• Earliest archeological evidence- 8,000 years ago
from Georgia.
• Yeast, earliest domesticated microorganismoccurs naturally on the skin of grapes, leading
to the alcoholic drinks.
ACTIVE COMPOUNDS:
•Stilbenes:
resveratrol, piceatannol, pterostilbene.
•Flavanols:
catechins, epicatechins, procyanidins,
proanthocyanidins, viniferones quercetin, myricetin,
kaempferol , isorhamnetin. Phenolic Acids,
caffeic acid, coumaric acid, ferulic acid, gallic acid.
•Carotenoids :
beta-carotene, lutein, zeaxanthin.
• Gene-Mapping Project-heritage of over 110
modern grape cv –investigated origin in
Georgia-residues discovered on the inner
surfaces of 8,000-year-old ceramic storage
jars.
• Armenia, dating to around 4000 BC.
• Syrah red wine of Shiraz called Shirazi wine
known from 16 AD.
• Egyptian hieroglyphics record the cultivation
of purple grapes.
• Greeks, Phoenicians and
Romans grew for eating + wine production.
• In USA native grapes from various species
of Vitis genus were a part of the diet of
many Native Americans.
• BUT Vitis vinifera cv imported.
• French Paradox
• French tend to eat higher levels of animal fat,
but the incidence of heart disease remains
low?
• Potential benefits include:
reduces platelet aggregation, compounds
mainly in the grape skin provide many health
benefits.
• Alters molecular mechanisms in blood vessels,
reducing susceptibility to vascular damage.
• Decreases activity of angiotensin, a systemic
hormone causing blood vessel constriction
that would elevate blood pressure.
• Increases production
hormone, nitric oxide.
of
the
vasodilator
• Polyphenols like resveratrol
provide
physiological benefits & protective effects
on the cardiovascular system.
Resveratrol
• Apparently serves antifungal
defensive properties.
&
other
• Dietary- modulates the metabolism of lipids &
inhibits oxidation of low-density lipoproteins
& aggregation of platelets.
• primarily in the skins of grape varieties &
seeds, in muscadine grapes- have about 100
times higher concentration than pulp.
• Fresh grape skin contains about 50
to 100 microgm. of resveratrol / gm.
• In vitro studies indicate-protection
of the genome through antioxidant
actions may be a general function of
resveratrol.
• resveratrol-1
year
dietary
regime;Phase III study of elderly
patients with Alzheimer's disease.
• anthocyanins-main polyphenolics in
purple grapes;
• catechins are the more abundant
phenolic in white varieties.
• resveratrol has transcriptional overlap
with the beneficial effects of calorie
restriction in heart, skeletal muscle &
brain (mice studies).
• inhibits gene expression associated with
heart & skeletal muscle aging.
• prevent age-related heart failure.
• Total phenolic content-lab. index of
antioxidant strength higher in purple cv
(skin anthocyanin density) compared to
white grape skin (lack anthocyanins).
• BUT, phenolic content varies with cv, soil
composition, climate, geographic origin, &
cultivation practices or exposure to diseases,
such as fungal infections.
• Fermentation time in contact with grape
skins-an
important
determinant
of
resveratrol content.
• Ordinary non-muscadine extract
contains 0.2 - 5.8 mg/L, depending on
the grape variety.
• In
muscadine
skins,
ellagic
acid, myricetin, quercetin, kaempferol,
&
trans-resveratrol
are
major
phenolics.
• Extracts from muscadine grapes may
contain more than 40 mg/L, an
exceptional phenolic content.
• Contrary to previous results, Ellagic
Acid & not Resveratrol regarded as the
major phenolics in muscadine grapes.
• Flavonols syringetin,
syringetin 3-O-galactoside, laricitrin &
laricitrin 3-O-galactoside also found in
purple, absent in white grapes.
• Benefits
• Areas of benefit in grape research include
the cardiovascular system, respiratory
system, immune system, inflammatory
system, blood sugar regulating system, &
nervous system.
• Another area of special benefit is cancer
prevention, with risk of breast, prostate, &
colon cancer emerging as the most likely
areas of grape anti-cancer benefits.
Other fruits
• (almond, banana, breadfruit, walnut
(nrmal,pekan,indian), apple, pear, peach,
avocado, guava, mango, orange, papaya,
passion-fruit,
pineapple-14),
abiu
(Pouteria caimoto), acerola (Malpighia
spp.), annona spp., Averrhoa carambola,
chempedak
(Artocarpus
integrifolia),
Durian.
Other fruits
• pistachio=
Pistacia vera; Arachis hypogaeagroundnut, pinon= 1) Siberian pine, Pinus sibirica;
2) Korean pine, Pinus koraiensis; 3) Italian stone
pine, Pinus
pinea; 5) Chilgoza pine, Pinus
gerardiana; and 5) singleleaf pinyon, Pinus
monophylla, Colorado pinyon, Pinus edulis, and
other pinyon pine species,
• jackfruit, langsat and duku (Lansium domesticum),
longan (Dimocarpus longan syn. Euphoria longana),
mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana), wax apple, santol
(Sandorium koetjape)
Taxus baccata
• In 1021, Avicenna introduced the medicinal
use of
T. baccata for phytotherapy in The Canon of
Medicine.
• He named this herbal drug "Zarnab" and
used it as a cardiac remedy.
• First known use of a calcium channel
blocker drug, not in wide use in the Western
world until the 1960s.
• Precursors of chemotherapy drug Paclitaxel
derived from the leaves of European yew :Taxus baccata, more renewable source than the
bark of the Pacific yew (Taxus brevifoliawestern yew,Taxaceae) a conifer native
to Pacific NW of N America.
• Early
1990s;
many
environmentalists,
including Al Gore, had opposed the harvesting
of yew for paclitaxel cancer treatments.
• Docetaxel (another taxane) obtained by
semi-synthetic conversion from the
precursors.
• Central Himalayas-the plant used as a
treatment for cancer.
• Chemotherapy drug paclitaxel (taxol),
used in breast, ovarian, & lung
cancer treatment.
• Had become scarce when chemotherapeutic
potential realized----never commercially harvested
from its habitat at a large scale.
• semi-synthetic
pathway was developed from
extracts of cultivated yews of other species.
• Traditionally, wood used by native Americans to
make bows & paddles for canoes, +many other
items for daily life use.
• Japanese used the wood for decorative purposes.
• Most parts of tree toxic, except the bright red
aril surrounding the seed.
• Foliage toxic even when wilted, toxicity
increases in potency when dried.
• Ingestion & subsequent excretion by birds
whose beaks+digestive systems do not break
down the seed's coating are the primary
means of yew dispersal.
• Taxus baccata-a conifer native to
western, central, southern Europe,
NW Africa, N Iran & SW Asia.
• Unlicensed pharmaceutical production
& use of closely related wild yew species
in India + China threatening these
species.
• Originally
known
as
yew,
now
called English yew, or European yew.
• A tree in Scotland, has largest recorded
trunk -2,000 to 3,000 years old, may be
around 1,500 years old.
• Horses have lowest tolerance to taxine, with
a lethal dose of 200–400 mg/kg body
weight, cattle, pigs, & other livestock are
only slightly less vulnerable.
• Symptoms of yew poisoning include:
accelerated heart rate, muscle
tremors,
convulsions,
collapse,
difficulty in breathing, circulation
impairment & eventually heart
failure.
• There may be no symptoms, if
poisoning
remains
undetected,
death may occur within hours.
• Fatal poisoning in humans is very rare,
usually if yew foliage consumed in large
quantity.
• Leaves more toxic than seeds.
• One of the world's oldest surviving wooden
artifacts - Clactonian yew spear head, found
in 1911 at Clacton-on-sea, in Essex, UK.
• Estimated to be about 450,000 years old.
Catharanthus roseus (Apocynaceae)
• Madagascar rosy periwinkle-native &
endemic to Madagascar.
• Other English names:Cape periwinkle
Rose periwinkle
Rosy periwinkle
“Old-Maid"
• Rosinidin- an anthocyanidin pigment found in
the flowers of C. roseus.
• Species long cultivated for herbal medicine &
as ornamental.
• In Ayurveda the extracts of roots + shoots,
though poisonous, used against several
diseases.
• Traditional Chinese medicine, extracts used
against numerous diseases, including diabetes,
malaria, & Hodgkin's lymphoma.
• Vinblastine + Vincristine extracted from the
plant-used in the treatment of Leukemia &
Hodgkin's lymphoma.
• Conflict between historical indigenous use, &
recent patents on C.roseus-derived drugs
by western pharmaceutical companies,
without compensation, has led to accusations
of BIOPIRACY.
• Dangerous if consumed orally.
• Can be extremely
synonym Vinca rosea).
toxic
(under
its
• Ornamental plant, appreciated for its
hardiness in dry & nutritionally deficient
conditions, popular in subtropical gardens
where temperatures never fall below 5 -7 °C,
& as a warm-season bedding plant in
temperate gardens.
• Noted for its long flowering period,
throughout the year in tropical
conditions, from spring to late
autumn, in warm temperate
climates.
• Full sun & well-drained soil are
preferred.
• Numerous cv selected-variation in flower
colour (white, mauve, peach, scarlet and
reddish-orange), also for tolerance of cooler
growing conditions in temperate regions.
• Notable cv are 'Albus' (white flowers), 'Grape
Cooler' (rose-pink; cool-tolerant), Ocellatus
Group (various colours), 'Peppermint Cooler'
(white with a red centre; cool-tolerant).
Cyperus rotundus
• (coco-grass,
Java
grass,
nut
grass, purple nut sedge, red nut
sedge)
• Species of sedge (Cyperaceae) native
to Africa, southern / central Europe
& southern Asia.
• Word cyperus- from the Greek
(kuperos) & rotundus is from Latin,
meaning "round".
• Names "nut grass" & "nut
sedge“(Cyperus esculentus) - derived
from
its
tubers,
somewhat
resemble nuts- botanically they have
nothing to do with nuts.
• Papyrus & Food
• Papyrus mentioned as food by Herodotus,
annual plant collected & lower part eaten.
• Starch filled rhizomes consumed raw or
roasted, tasted even better after being baked
in a red hot oven.
• Theophrastus (ca. 370-288 BC) claimed it was
of greatest use as food.
• Egyptians chewed the papyrus raw, swallowed
the juice , spit out the remains.
• Children were served stews along with raw,
roasted, boiled, or baked, stalks of the plant.
• Pliny tells that the root was a food for the
peasant classes.
• Used as chewing gum both in the raw & boiled
states.
• Tubers of Cyperus esculentus (tiger nuts) and C.
rotundus were used in the ancient eastern
Mediterranean as food, perfume and medicine.
• Tiger nuts were consumed in Egypt as boiled in
beer, roasted or as sweets made of ground tubers
with honey-found in tombs from the 4th
millennium B.C. to the 5th centuryA.D.
• Treatments given by Dioscorides-similar to one
in the Ebers papyri, demonstrating its
continuity over 1600 years.
Papyrus Boats
• Roman naturalist Pliny wrote, “…indeed they
plait papyrus to make boats, weave sails +
matting from the bark & also cloth, blankets,
ropes.”
• Small skiffs were made by fishermen as they
served well for fishing & laying of traps or
drag-nets.
• Numerous medical uses documented
in the Ebers Papyrus and in the
Edwin Smith Papyrus.
• Dried papyrus used for expanding &
drying fistulae - as an aid to open an
abscess for the application of
medicine.
• Burnt papyrus ash was a caustic
remedy.
• Ash used for diseases of eye & if
added to wine it induced sleep.
• Plant itself with water was known
to cure skin calluses.
• Papyrus disappearance-not due to climate but
in the physical conditions of the river—
periodical rise & fall of its waters—not
enabling it to hold its ground without human
intervention.”
• Delta silted up & around the 12th century BC
made it a salty swamp, Papyrus, a fresh water
plant, was doomed.
• In traditional Chinese medicine -cyperus
was the primary qi regulating herb.
• Mentioned in ancient Indian ayurvedic
medicine.
• Currently used for treating fevers,
digestive system disorders, dysmenorrhea
& other maladies (modern ayurvedic
medicine) .
• Dioscorides mentions its use as a diuretic in
the treatment of ulcers & sores.
• Used both in fresh & dry form as perfume &
as aromatic.
• In alternative medicine C. rotundus applied
internally & externally to treat nausea,
digestive system maladies, high blood pressure,
premenstrual syndrome, cramping.
• Used to reduce inflammation, pain, & heart
palpitations.
• Clinical studies show-the essential oils in the
plant's tubers have antibiotic properties-stop
the growth of
bacteria Micrococcus
pyrogenes.
• Oil of Cyperus rotundus may be able to
treat Staphylococcus aureus.
• Word "paper“-etymologically derived
from papyros, Ancient Greek for the
Cyperus papyrus plant.
• BUT: paper invented first by the ancient
Chinese-2nd century BC during Han
Dynasty and spread via the Silk Road.
• Earlier paper-like materials parchment and
vellum were used.
• Papyrus (German Egyptologist Georg Ebers) a
"lamination of natural plants-properties
changed by maceration or disintegration.
• “A greatest consequence for Egyptian industrial
arts that one of the most useful plants the world
has ever known grew in every marsh.
• Papyrus-only one of the predecessors of paperall collectively known by the generic term ‘tapa‘,
mostly made from the inner bark of the
mulberry, fig and daphne trees.
• In China a sheet of paper from mulberry
+ other bast fibres along with fishnets, old rags,
& hemp waste.
• Earliest piece of paper found, at Fangmatan in
Gansu province inscribed with a map, dates
from 179-41 BC.
Islamic world
• After the defeat of the Chinese in the Battle of
Talas in 751 (present day Kyrgyzstan), the
invention
spread
to
the
Middle
East
(Chinese prisoners –Samarkand)
Hemp wrapping paper, China, circa 100 BC
• first paper mill founded in the Islamic world .
• Records of paper being made at
Gilgit in Pakistan -6th century,
Samarkand ,Uzbekistan - 751 A.D.,
Bagdad-793 A.D., Egypt -900 A.D.,
Fes, Morocco around -1100 A.D.
• Muslims also introduced the use of trip
hammers (human- or animal-powered) in the
production of paper, replacing the traditional
Chinese mortar and pestle method.
• 9th century-muslims were using paper regularly, for
important
works
like
copies
of
The
Holy Qur'an, vellum was still preferred.
• By the 12th century in Marrakech in Morocco a street
was named "Kutubiyyin" or book sellers which
contained more than 100 bookshops
• Where do umbels and stalks come from?
• They emerge from what is called the rhizome,
a horizontal, root-like stem that sends out
shoots from its lower surface & leafy shoots
from its upper surface.
• Arabs traditionally used roasted tubers,
while they are still hot, or hot ashes from
burned tubers, to treat wounds, bruises,
carbuncles.
• European & Islamic herbalists like:
IBN-SINA, RHAZI, Dioscorides, Galen,
Serapion, Alston have described medical
uses as stomachic, emmenagogue,
deobstruent & in emollient plasters.
• Genus Quercus ± 600 extant species.
• Some truffles, have symbiotic relationships with oak trees.
• Betula papyrifera
•
Quercus coccifera-Kermes Oak
•
Any hard-walled, edible kernel is a nut Family Fagaceae
Beech (Fagus),
Chestnut
(Castanea),
Oak
(Quercus),
Stone-oak
(Lithocarpus),
Tanoak (Notholithocarpus), Family Betulaceae Hazel, Filbert (Corylus), Hornbeam
(Carpinus).
Fagus orientalis, the Oriental Beech, a deciduous treeFagaceae; extends from SE Bulgaria's Strandja
mountain through northwest Turkey east to the
Caucasus & Alborz Mountains of Iran; restricted
to mountain forests;500-2,100 m altitude.
• Quercus ilex, Fagaceae
• Quercus ilex, the holm oak or holly oak is a
large evergreen oak native to the Mediterranean
region.
• A tree or shrub approximately 600 extant species. The
common name "Oak" may appear in the names
of species like Lithocarpus.
• Native
to
the
Northern
Hemisphere-includes
deciduous and evergreen species extending from cool
temperate to tropical latitudes in Asia and the Americas.
• center of endemism is regarded as North America,
particularly Mexico.
• Cultural significance: Oak branches on the coat of arms
of Estonia.
• A common symbol of strength and endurance.
• Oak branches displayed on some German coins, both of
the former Deutsche Mark and the
current Euro currency.
• National tree of Cyprus (Golden Oak), England, Estonia,
France, Germany, Moldova, Latvia, Romania, Lithuania,
Poland, USA, Wales, Galicia, Bulgaria, Serbia.
Fallen acorns
A cross section of the trunk of a cork oak Quercus suber
• Oak wood very resistant to insect and fungal
attack because of its high tannin content.
• Has very appealing grain markings, particularly
when quartersawn.
• Oak planking was common on high status Viking
longships in the 9th and 10th centuries.
• Prized as interior panelling of prestigious
buildings.
• Quercus robur and Quercus petraea wood was
used in Europe for the construction of ships.
• Principal timber used in the construction of
European timber-framed buildings.
• Today oak wood is still commonly used for
furniture making and flooring, timber frame
buildings, and for veneer production.
• Barrels made from European and American
oak.
• Oak barrels-charred before use, contribute
to the colour, taste, aroma of the contents,
imparting a desirable oaky vanillin flavour
to the drinks.
• Oak wood chips are used for smoking fish,
meat, cheeses and other foods.
• Japanese oak is used in the making of
professional drums from
manufacturer Yamaha Drums.
• Leaves are used as fodder during
lean period and bedding for
livestock.
• Bark of the cork oak is used to
produce corks.
• This species grows in
the Mediterranean region.
• White Oak Barkis dried and used in medical
preparations.
• Bark rich in tannin-used by tanners for tanning
leather.
• Acorns are used for making flour or roasted for
acorn coffee.
• Oak galls used for centuries as the main
ingredient in manuscript ink, harvested at a
specific time of year.
• Korea-oak bark used to make shingles for
traditional roof construction.
• One of the 38 substances used to prepare Bach
flower remedies,
a kind of alternative
medicine promoted for its effect on health.
• Cancer Research UK-"there is no scientific
evidence to prove that flower remedies can
control, cure or prevent any type of disease,
including cancer”.
• Oaks - keystone species in a wide range of habitats
from Mediterranean semi-desert to subtropical
rainforest.
• Oaks important components of hardwood forests,
and certain species are particularly known to grow
in associations with members of the Ericaceae
in oak-heath forests.
• Many kinds of truffles, +2 well known varieties, the
black Périgord truffle and the white Piedmont
truffle, have symbiotic relationships with oak trees.
• European pied flycatcher (Ficedula hypoleuca) is an
example of an animal species that often depends upon oak
trees.
• Past 200 years-large areas of oak forest cleared
for coffee plantations + cattle ranching-a
continuing threat to these forests from
exploitation for timber, fuelwood, charcoal.
• 78 wild oak species -identified as being in
danger of extinction, from a global total of over
500 species.
• Himalayas-oak forests are being invaded by
pine forests due to the increase in temperature.
• Toxicity
• Leaves + acorns are poisonous
to cattle, horses, sheep, and goats in
large amounts due to the toxin tannic
acid, and cause kidney damage
and gastroenteritis.
• Symptoms of poisoning include lack of
appetite,
depression,
constipation,
diarrhea
(which
may
contain
blood), blood in urine, and colic.
• Exception - domestic pig, which may be
fed entirely on acorns in the right
conditions, and has traditionally been
pastured in oak woodlands for hundreds
of years.
• Acorns are also edible to humans in
processed form, after leaching of the
tannins; a staple part of forage
consumed
by
wildlife,
including squirrels.
Religious
• Greek mythology, oak is the tree sacred
to Zeus, king of the gods.
• Baltic mythology, oak is the sacred tree of
the god of thunder – Taranus.
• In Celtic polytheism, the name of the oak
tree was part of the Proto-Celtic word for
'druid‘.
•
The Indo-Europeans worshiped the oak and
connected it with a thunder or lightning god;
"tree" and drus may also be cognate with
"Druid," the Celtic priest to whom the oak
was sacred.
• The mistletoe that grew high in the oak was
especially sacred and sent from Heaven by the
god who chose the tree as sacred.
• Druids would cut the mistletoe with the golden
sickle during religious ceremony.
• Sir John Rhys, the first Prof. of Celtic
studies at Oxford, speaks of acorn bread as
a staple diet of the Celts of Iberia.
• Greek mythology-Dryads, faerie-like
creatures, lived in Oak trees.
• Very shy except when around Artemis the
goddess who was a friend to most nymphs.