Transcript GEN 101 ENGLISH LANGUAGE Lecturer: Salifu N. Alhassan

GEN 101 ENGLISH LANGUAGE
Lecturer:
Salifu N. Alhassan
Department of African and General Studies
Lecture 1 -3.
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E-mail from a long essay group
please sir find attach the proposal on the topic, and
particulars of the group. we are most pleased of
you been our supervisor, and we hope you can
contain us online. Thank you.
• Please Sir, find attached the proposal on the
topic, and particulars of the group. We are most
pleased of you being our supervisor, and we hope
you can contain us online. Thank you.
• we are pleased to have you as our supervisor..
2
1. SPELLING
• 1. English spelling is arbitrary and at
variance with its pronunciation; any
appearance of regularity falls apart
after a few instances.
• There is a long vowel sound /i:/ in
meet, sheep, sleep, feet, see, etc.
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• But the same sound can be represented
in other ways as in:
•
be, sea, key, quay, ski, esprit,
•
deceit, field, people,
•
amoeba/ameba, aeon/eon, leave,
these, etc.
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• The same /i:/ sound is also spelt ie:
niece, priest, siege, believe
•
Exceptions – seize, weird.
•
After c it is spelt ei: deceive, receive,
ceiling, receipt, conceive, etc.
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• 2. c before a/o/u is hard –
•
cat, cot, cut, come, cup, can...
•
but before e/i it is soft –
• cent, center, certificate, cite, city,...
• except façade
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•
•
•
•
•
•
3. Words with aberrant letter values
any, gaol (BrE) for jail,
laugh, phantom,
colonel, woman, sugar,
xenophobia,
indict, etc.
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HOMOGRAPHS AND HETEROGRAPHS
• 1. Homonyms: Words that have the same
spelling and sound, but distinct meanings.
• tender feelings, (adj)
• fire tender,
(noun)
• to tender one’s resignation (verb)
• These do not usually pose any problem when
they are in context.
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2. Homographs:
• Words that have the same spelling but
different sound (pronunciations).
•
bow [bow and arrow]
bow [bow
down your heads]
•
refuse (verb)
refuse (noun)
• These cause ambiguities for readers, but not
for writers.
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• Most homographs are very closely
related: for example, "absent" as an
adjective meaning "missing", and as a
verb meaning "to make oneself missing".
Many of these words only exhibit stress
alternation.
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• ‘cool’ (verb) – Let the machine to cool for an
hour
• ‘cool’ (adj) – The weather is cool.
• ‘cool’ noun- Don’t panic; keep your cool.
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• Many of these words only exhibit stress
alternation.
• convict (verb) – The judge convicted the
accused.
• convict (noun) – The convict was whisked
away to start his sentence in
jail.
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• row (noun) – The row over the 45 new
constituencies is now over.
• row (noun)- He always sits in the front row.
• row (verb) – He rowed the canoe while his
father fished in the stream.
• See List A.
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3. Homophones:
• Two or more words that are SPELT
DIFFERENTLY, but have the SAME sound/
pronunciation.
• There are over 600 pairs in English (The
Oxford Companion of the English
Language, 1992).
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•
•
•
•
pair/pare/pear
right/rite/write/wright
cent/scent/sent
In reading they present no problem, but
in writing they require an effort of
memorization as one word can easily be
confused for the other; e.g. when flair is
written for flare or fare for fair.
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• Note: Some words may not be true
homophones; that is, they are not exactly the
same in sound, but they are close enough in
sound to cause confusion in spelling, e.g.
• temporal/temporary;
• loose/lose;
• once/ones/one’s.
• See List B
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4. Problem words
• Confusion over doubled consonants:
supprise*
for surprise
accomodate* for accommodate
commitee*
for committee
dissapear*
for disappear
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Other problem words:
acknowledge
argument (argue)
cemetery
concede
embarrass
existence(not existance*)
foreign
harass
inaugurate
allege
calendar
committee
conscience
exceed
February
government
inoculate
restaurant
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•
•
•
•
•
•
library
occasion
precede
supersede
maintenance
secretary
necessary
parliament
secede
privilege
explanation
pronunciation
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5. British Spelling/ American Spelling
• There are differences in spelling between British
and American English. In some cases the two
occur.
• American
British
• catalog
catalogue
• check
cheque
• offense
offence
• program
programme
• color
colour
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•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
neighbor
labor
flavor
honor
vigor
center
meter
fiber
neighbour
labour
flavour
honour
labour
centre
metre
fibre
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•
•
•
•
•
•
•
liter
ameba
diarrhea
esophagus
archeology
gynecology
encyclopedia
litre
amoeba
diarrhoea
oesophagus
archaeology
gynaecology
encyclopaedia
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• -ise or –ize
• -ize: capsize, seize,
• -ise: advise, surprise,
• Both ise/ize are acceptable in some words:
civilise/civilize,
civilisation/civilization
organise/organize
organisation/organization
analyse/analyze
paralyse/paralyze
BUT analysis/paralysis
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• Watch out for words which must be only
-ise:
advertise
advise
comprise
compromise
disenfranchise
enterprise
franchise
improvise
merchandise
revise
supervise
televise, etc.
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• SPELLING CHECKER
• Computer software for checking spelling.
• Identifies words not in the program’s list, e.g.
non-words such as ther, for there.
• Where there is confusion between there and
their this cannot be detected.
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6. Sentence Structure
• The general view about physical exercises is
that the use of gross muscle groups to
generate heat and energy in the body for a
person’s total strength, health and
recreation.
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-Subject and Predicate
• A sentence normally has a subject and a
predicate.
• The subject: the word or group of words that tells
who or what performs or undergoes the action
named by the verb, or experiences the condition
named.
• The predicate: the word or group of words that
normally follows the subject and tells what it (i.e.
the subject) does, has, is, or what is done to it, or
where it is.
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Subject and Predicate
SUBJECT
Helen
The movie
The children
This blade
Two tenants
The milk
PREDICATE
is laughing.
starts at nine.
have a new toy.
is sharp.
have been evicted.
is in the refrigerator.
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Basic sentence patterns
• Note that the verb is obligatory in every
sentence.
• This gives the basic pattern of the English
sentence as:
• i. SUBJECT + VERB – (SV)
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i. SUBJECT + VERB – (SV)
Gases react.
Languages change.
Birds fly.
Food satisfies.
Education pays.
We won.
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• ii. Some sentences require an object to make
the sense complete.
Teachers transmit ideas.
Acids attack metals.
Oxygen oxidizes iron.
Students develop skills.
Demand determines prices.
Cleanliness saves lives.
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• SUBJECT + VERB + OBJECT - (SVO)
The object is ‘affected’ by the action denoted by
the verb.
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• iii. The verb may also require another word to
throw more light on the subject itself.
Bombs are dangerous.
Human beings are mammals.
Adam Smith was an economist.
They became University students.
The child is happy.
• SUBJECT + VERB + COMPLEMENT - (SVC)
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• iv. A complement may also give more light on
the object.
He named the substance alcohol.
We painted the house green.
Haemoglobin makes blood red.
The manager appointed her as farm
manager.
Culture makes us human.
Homer wrote The Iliad, a book of poetry.
• SUBJECT + VERB + OBJECT + COMPLEMENT
(SVOC)
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• v. We may throw more light on the verb by the
use of an ADVERB
Gases react violently.
Languages change slowly.
Birds fly high.
We won convincingly.
• SUBJECT + VERB + ADVERB - (SVA) or
• SUBJECT + VERB + OBJECT + ADVERB - (SVOC)
• We won the match convincingly.
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He mixed the substances quickly.
The farmers harvest their crops in January.
Development helps society enormously.
• SVOA
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• vi. The verb in a sentence may affect two
objects, one directly and the other indirectly.
I gave my friend a birthday present.
The agricultural officer gave the farmers
some insecticides.
Food costs us money.
The student showed the counselor
her essay.
• SUBJECT + VERB + OBJECTdirect + OBJECTindirect
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• It is not enough for a sentence to conform to
one of these patterns; it must make sense.
•
‘The mango swallowed the house.’ has the
pattern SVO but does not make sense, and so
is the following sentence;
•
‘Colorless green ideas sleep furiously.’
(SVA)
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• A writer may get lost if the sentence is too long.
The general view about physical exercises is that the use of gross
muscle groups to generate heat and energy in the body for a person’s
total strength, health and recreation.
• The predicate of the above sentence is not complete:
• ....that the use of gross muscle groups to generate heat and energy
in the body for a person’s total strength, health and recreation...
• A short sentence also can be incomplete:
Because he slept late.
The reason why he is not here.
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7. Expanding Sentences
• The sentences used so far are basic types. To
convey our thoughts effectively we connect
the sentences through the processes of
coordination and subordination.
The Black Stars will win against Malawi.
I will collect Ghȼ 200 from my roommate.
He is betting against the Black Stars.
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• These can be combined for more effectiveness by
turning some of the sentences into clauses.
• Clause 1: If the Black Stars win against
Malawi,
• Clause 2: I will collect Ghȼ 200 from my
roommate,
• Clause 3: who is betting against the Black
Stars.
If the Black Stars win against Malawi, I will collect
Ghȼ 200 from my roommate who is betting against
them.
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• Every sentence consists of one or more
clauses. A sentence is a clause, but not all
clauses are sentences.
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A. Coordination
• i. He sold his maize. He bought a new bicycle.
He sold his maize and he bought a new bicycle.
• ii. He harvested his maize. He wanted a new
bicycle. He sold the maize. He got 600 cedis. He
used 200 cedis to buy a bicycle.
He wanted a new bicycle, so he harvested his maize,
sold it for 600 cedis and bought a bicycle for 200
cedis.
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• Words, phrases, clauses and sentences may be
connected by using:
• and, but, or, nor, so, for, yet- coordinating
conjunctions/ connectives
• either...or, neither...nor – correlative
conjunctions
• however, consequently, hence, moreover,
furthermore, also, accordingly, likewise,
besides, indeed, thus, meanwhile, namely,
and then – conjunctive adverbs
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•
•
•
•
•
Coordination may express
addition
contrast
choice
result
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• Addition
• Coordination may be done to indicate that both
ideas are of equal rank and what follows is an
addition or is supplementary to the first.
• I love him and he loves me.
• Connectives used to show addition include:
•
also
both
besides
moreover and
furthermore
likewise
then
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• I once had a cold. It gave me a terrible
headache. I went to see the doctor. He said I
had a sinus infection.
• I once had a cold, and it gave me a terrible
headache. I went to see the doctor and he
said I had a sinus infection.
• Note: This can still be improved with
subordination (further below).
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• Contrast
• Ideas may be coordinated to show contrast or
conflict
•
I love him but he does not love me.
•
Connectives used to show addition
include:
but, however, nevertheless, still, yet.
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-addition and contrast
• The University for Development Studies has four
campuses. Each campus offers both undergraduate and
graduate programmes. The student population in all
four campuses has grown in recent years. The facilities
of the university have not expanded as fast.
Revised:The University for Development Studies has four
campuses, and each campus offers both undergraduate
and graduate programmes. The student population in all
four campuses has grown in recent years, but the
facilities of the university have not expanded as fast.
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• Choice
• Coordination may show alternate possibility;
•
You buy it or I buy it.
• Other connectives: either ...or, neither...nor, or,
otherwise.
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• Result
• Coordination may show the consequence or
result of a preceding statement;
• I love him therefore he loves me.
Other connectives that show result:
• consequently, accordingly, hence, therefore.
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• Faulty Coordination
• For correct coordination of two or more statements,
first establish the kind of relation between them.
• Faulty: Ekua took a long vacation and her health did
not improve.
• Revised: Ekua took a long vacation, but her health did
not improve.
• Faulty: Ekua spent a long time in the hospital, but she
came out entirely well.
• Revised: Ekua spent a long time in the hospital;
consequently she came out entirely well.
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• Faulty: They watched him deliver different types
of sermons and how he handled feedback from
listeners.
• Revised: They watched how he delivered
different types of sermons and how he handled
feedback from listeners.
• Revised: They watched him deliver different
types of sermons and handle feedback from
listeners.
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• Faulty: Any man that allows the wife or
female participation in the decision making
process is perceived as a weak man.
• Revised: Any man that allows his wife or a
female to participate in the decision making
process is perceived as a weak man.
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B. Subordination
• Subordination is another means of combining
sentences. One clause provides the main idea
and the subordinate sentence or clause
throws more light on the main idea. The
subordinate clause cannot stand on its own
and is usually called a subordinate clause.
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• My sister designed a course on
personal relations for her firm. She is
an efficient manager. (Equal
emphasis)
• My sister, who is an efficient
manager, designed a course on
personal relations for her firm.
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• The rains finally stopped. We felt so
relieved.
• Revised:We felt so relieved when the rains finally
ceased.
When the rains finally ceased we felt so
relieved.
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Improving coordination through subordination
• I once had a cold, and it gave me a terrible
headache. I went to see the doctor and he
said I had a sinus infection.
• Revised:I once had a cold which gave me a terrible
headache, and when I went to see the doctor he
said I had a sinus infection.
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• The dog lived next door.
The dog was scrawny.
The dog barked.
The dog was old.
The dog howled.
The dog kept me awake.
I was awake all night.
The dog was scrawny and old, and he lived next
door; he barked and howled and kept me awake all
night.
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• Subordination makes the combination more
effective:
• The dog that kept me awake all night with its
barking and howling lived next door.
• This puts emphasis on the fact that the dog
lives next door.
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Subordinating conjunctions.
• Subordinate clauses are introduced by
subordinating conjunctions.
• These express a relation of time, condition,
result, purpose, reason or cause between the
main clause and the subordinate clause.
We felt so relieved when the rains finally
ceased.
• Some subordinating conjunctions may
perform more than one of these functions.
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• i. Time: Subordinating conjunctions that
express time relationship between the main
clause and the subordinate clause include since, when, as, while, before, until, after,
whenever, as soon as, as long as, ever since.
• You must not get leave the examination hall
until you have submitted all the completed
forms.
• The factory closed down when the owner
died.
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ii. Expressing Condition:
Subordinating conjunctions that express the
condition under which the idea in the main
clause appliesIf, provided, while, unless
• If battery-powered cars become popular, the
price of gas will drop.
• He said he would not resign unless he got an
assurance that he will not be prosecuted.
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iii. Result or purpose
The subordinating conjunctions in order that, so
that, lest, as a result of express the result or
purpose of an idea in the main clause.
• I worked in a department store for a year so
that I could earn money.
• It is important to have a good laboratory so
that students can carry on the relevant
experiments.
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iv. Reason or Cause
Subordinating conjunctions that explain why
something occurred in the main clause include : since, as, whereas, because
• We postponed the meeting because we did
not form a quorum.
• Since he could not pay the fine, he had to
serve two weeks in jail.
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7. SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT
Consider the sentence:
• Several appeals we have made to the
Assembly to come to our aid and reconstruct
the market has fallen on deaf ears.
The verb has fallen does not agree with the
subject several appeals.
• Every sentence must have a subject and a
verb.
• The verb must reflect the correct number of
the subject.
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• If the subject is singular, the verb should also
be in the singular form.
Singular I live
you live
he/she/it/ lives
Plural
we live
you live
they live
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• When the subject is a singular noun, or third
person pronoun (she/he/it), it requires a verb
in the singular form –i.e. with -s or –es.
Peggy wants to study economics.
She works at the bank.
It serves over two thousand depositors.
Each of them holds a passbook.
Marvin Megabucks owns the bank.
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He polishes his Jaguar once a week.
Everyone has moments of self-doubt.
The bank has closed for the holidays.
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• ii. When the subject is NOT a singular noun or
third-person singular pronoun, use the bare
form of the verb.
– Economists study the fluctuation of prices.
– His stories often have surprise endings.
– Reporters and novelists both write for a living.
• Acid corrodes. (Sing.)
• Acids corrode. (Pl.)
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iii. Modified nouns and Pronouns
When a noun or a pronoun is modified, the
number depends on the noun or pronoun itself,
not on the modifiers.
• A ship carrying hundreds of tourists has
docked at the port.
• Each of the candidates has taken a different
position.
• Big cities each have their own special
problems.
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• The leader of the demonstrators was
John Brown.
• The leaders of the opposition were
commended for their show of tolerance.
• The President, together with his Vice,
has arrived for the function.
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• iv. When the singular subject is defined by the
words each, every, anyone, everybody,
nobody, somebody, no one, the singular verb is
used:
• In this university each man and woman
studies for good grades.
• Every child and adult has to pay a fee in order
to watch the film.
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• Anyone who thinks he has the answer can try
the puzzle.
• Nobody has the right to take another’s life.
• Somebody has taken a book from this shelf.
• No one dares to disagree with the decision of
the committee.
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v. The following are always considered as singular:
he
one
someone
she
each one
another
it
everyone
this
that
whoever
something
everything
whatever
whichever
anybody
anything
either
neither
nothing
none
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• vi. Always Plural
we
these both
few
they
those others several
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8. AMBIGUITIES AND DANGLING
MODIFIERS
• 8. AMBIGUITIES AND DANGLING MODIFIERS
• A sentence or part of a sentence is ambiguous
when it conveys more than one meaning.
• There are times when an ambiguous meaning is
intended by a writer.
• Sometimes, however, an ambiguous sentence
may occur in writing where the writer does not
intend it, and the reader is left struggling to
decide what or who the writer is referring to.
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i. Lexical ambiguity
• In many cases ambiguity may be caused by the
use of a word which is homonymous with
another.
•
Life depends on the liver.
Is liver the person who lives it, or the liver in
the body?
•
He lives near the bank.
The bank building, or the bank of the river?
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• Ambiguity may be caused by polysemy, i.e.
two or more meanings of the same word.
He may leave.
a) It is possible, but not certain, that he will
leave.
b) He has my permission to leave.
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ii. Misplaced modifiers and modifying
phrases.
• If a modifier or a modifying phrase does not
clearly point to the word it modifies, it is
misplaced, and can cause an ambiguity.
*The police were looking for a middle-aged
woman with a little Scotch terrier beside her
driving a dark green Nissan pick-up.
•
Was the Scotch terrier doing the driving?
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• Revised: The police were looking for a middleaged woman driving a dark green Nissan pickup with a little Scotch terrier beside her.
• He killed the man with a pistol.
• Question: Is it that he killed the man who had
a pistol or he used a pistol to kill the man?
• Revised: He killed the man who had a pistol.
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• [Biting dogs] can kill you. = Dogs which bite
can kill you.
• [Biting] [dogs] can kill you. = If you bite dogs, it
can kill you.
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• The old fisherman [mended the net] [at
the beach.] = the mending was done at
the beach.
• The old fisherman mended [the net at
the beach.] = the net which was at the
beach.
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iii. Misplaced restrictors
• A restricter is a one-word modifier that
restricts the meaning of another word or a
group of words. Restricters include only, just,
almost, merely, nearly, scarcely, simply, even,
exactly, hardly. Usually a restricter should
come immediately before the word, phrase, or
clause it modifies:
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• Only John saw the lion. (i.e. no one else saw it)
• John only saw the lion. (i.e. he didn’t shoot)
• John saw only the lion (i.e. he did not see the
tiger).
• An ambiguity or sometimes an absurdity may
be created if the restricter is not properly
placed.
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• *At most universities, students only get their
certificates if they have paid all their bills.
• *At most universities, students get only their
certificates if they have paid all their bills.
Revised:
• At most universities, students get their
certificates only if they have paid all their bills.
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• *We only heard it yesterday.
• We heard it only yesterday.
• After heating the mixture we only observed a
slight change in colour.
• After heating the mixture we observed only a
slight change in colour.
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iv. Ambiguity in Pronouns
• Pronouns, especially the personal
pronouns (he, she, it, they, etc.) and the
demonstratives (this, that, these, those)
must be used in a way that they clearly
refer to an antecedent noun.
• When a pronoun is used in such a way
that it can apply to more than one
antecedent, the result is ambiguity.
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*Mansa informed her sister that she would be late
for the party.
• Question: Who will be late for the party, Mansa
or her sister?
• Revised: Mansa informed her sister that she
(Mansa) would be late for the party.
• Mansa remarked that her sister would be late for
the party.
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• *After my mother called Christina three times
she finally came downstairs.
Question: Does she refer to mother or sister?
• Revised: After my mother called Christina
three times, Christina finally came downstairs.
After my mother called her three times,
Christina finally came downstairs.
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• v. Using they and it without antecedents.
• Avoid using they and it as pronouns without
definite antecedents.
*In the first part of the movies, it shows clouds
billowing like waves.
Revised: The first part of the movie shows
clouds billowing like waves.
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• *In high school they made me take three
years of algebra.
In high school the authorities made me take
three years of algebra.
In high school I was made to take three years
of algebra.
In high school I had to take three years of
algebra.
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DANGLING MODIFIERS
• Another type of ambiguity can occur when the
subject-predicate relationship is not clear. This
sometimes happens when there is a
misplaced sentence modifier.
• Consider the following sentences in which the
subject in the main clause and the subject in
the subordinate clause are the same person.
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• I was walking towards the hall of residence
when I saw him breaking into the car.
• As I was walking towards the hall of residence,
I saw him breaking into the car.
In a case like the above the subordinate clause
can be turned into a modifying clause.
• Walking towards the hall of residence, I saw
him breaking into the car.
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• A construction like this makes sense only
when the subject in the modifying clause is
the same as the subject in the main clause.
• The person walking towards the hall of
residence is the same person who saw the
man breaking into the car.
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• I was running up the first long hill.
• I felt my nose dripping.
Combined: While I was running up the hill, I felt
my nose dripping.
While running up the hill, I felt my nose
dripping.
Running up the hill, I felt my nose dripping.
*Running up the hill, my nose began to drip.Χ
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• Now consider:
*Moving towards the hall of residence, the goat
hit the car.
*As the goat was moving towards the hall of
residence, the goat hit the car.
• Revised: As he was driving towards the hall of
residence the goat hit the car.
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• *Feeling feverish, a visit to the doctor seemed
only logical.
Feeling feverish, he thought he had better see
a doctor.
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Correcting Dangling modifiers.
• Supply suitable subject or reconstruct the
sentence.
• *After doing my homework, the dog was fed.
After I had done my homework, I fed the dog.
After doing my homework, I fed the dog.
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*Sitting under the tree, the cool breeze from the
sea soon made me fall asleep.
•
As I sat under the tree, the cool breeze
from the sea soon made me fall asleep.
•
Sitting under the tree and enjoying the
cool breeze from the sea, I soon fell asleep.
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Other Dangling phrases
• Driving through the town, several damaged
buildings were noticed.
(Who was driving through the town?)
Revised:
• Driving through the town, we noticed several
damaged buildings.
• When we were driving through the town, we
noticed several damaged buildings.
• When we drove through the town, we noticed
several damaged buildings.
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• Riding my bicycle, a dog chased me.
• Who was riding the bicycle?
Revised:
• Riding my bicycle, I was chased by a dog.
• When I was riding my bicycle, a dog chased
me.
• A dog chased me as I was riding my bicycle.
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• After putting a worm on my hook, the fish
began to bite.
Did the fish put the worm on the hook?
• After I put a worm on my hook, the fish began
to bite.
103
• To write effectively, practice is necessary.
(The phrase To write cannot relate to the subject
of the main clause, practice.
Revised:
To write effectively, one must practice.
If one wishes to write effectively, one (he or
she) must practice.
104
• When a baby, my grandfather gave me a silver
cup.
• Revised:
• When a baby, I was given a silver cup by my
grandfather. (The subject of the main clause
agrees with the implied subject of the elliptical
clause.)
• When I was a baby, I was given a silver cup by my
grandfather.
• When I was a baby, my grandfather gave me a
silver cup.
105
Practice: Correcting dangling modifiers/phrases
1. Being made of glass, I handled the tabletop
carefully.
2. Driving along at top speed, the road took an
unexpected turn to the left.
3. On receiving the news, tears filled his mother’s
eyes.
4. To be completely immune to polio, several
inoculations may be necessary.
5. To find out why the wheel shakes, the car must
be driven over 50 miles an hour.
106