Transcript Digital Image Processing

CoE3DJ4
Digital Systems Design
Simple computer architecture
Introduction
• Computer architecture, for a simple computer, is typically
divided into a datapath and a control.
• Datapath is defined by three basic components:
– a set of registers
– microoperations that are performed on data stored in registers
– control interface
• Control unit provides signals that control microoperations,
other components (e.g., memories), and control unit itself
(sequence of events that occur)
Datapath
• Computer systems often employ a number of storage registers
in conjunction with a shared operation unit called
arithmetic/logic unit (ALU)
• To perform a microoperation the content of specified source
registers are applied to the inputs of ALU, the ALU performs
the operation and the result of this operation is transferred to a
destination register
• Datapath and control unit are the two parts of the processor or
CPU.
• Datapath consists of registers, buses, multiplexers, decoders
and processing circuits.
Datapath
Datapath
• In the simple datapath of the previous slide:
– Arithmetic and logic microoperations are performed on the operands
on buses A and B by ALU.
– G select input selects the microoperation to be performed by ALU.
– Shift microoperations are performed by shifter on data on Bus B
– H select input either passes the operand on Bus B directly to shifter’s
output or selects a shift microoperation
– MUX F selects output of ALU or output of shifter
– MUXD selects output of MUX F or external data applied to Data in to
be applied to Bus D
– Destination select input determined which register is loaded with data
on Bus D
Datapath
• It is useful to have certain information, based on the results of
an ALU operation, available for use by the control unit to
make decisions.
• Four status bits are shown with ALU: carry C, overflow V,
zero status bit Z(1 if the output of the ALU is all zeros) and
sign status bit N (leftmost bit of the ALU output which is sign
bit for signed representation.
• Control unit directs the information flow through buses, ALU
shifter and registers by applying signals to the select inputs.
Datapath
• Example: perform microoperation: R1R2+R3
– A select, to place the content of R2 onto A data and hence bus A
– B select, to place the content of R3 onto the 0 input of MUX B, and
MB select to put 0 input of MUX B onto Bus B
– G select, to provide arithmetic operation A+B
– MF select, to place ALU output on the MUX F output
– MD select, to place the MUX F output onto Bus D
– Destination select, to select R1 as the destination
– Load enable to enable a register (R1) to be loaded
Arithmetic/Logic Unit (ALU)
• ALU is a combinational circuit that performs a set of basic
arithmetic and logic microoperations
• ALU has a number of selection lines used to determine the
operation to be performed
• Selection lines are decoded within ALU so k selection lines
can specify up to 2k distinct operations
Arithmetic/Logic Unit (ALU)
Shifter
• Shifter shifts value on Bus B placing result on MUX F.
• Shifter could be a bidirectional shift register with parallel load
or a barrel shifter
• A barrel shifter shifts or rotates input data bits by the number
of bit positions specified by a binary value on a selection
lines.
Datapath
• In order to reduce the apparent complexity of the datapath we
group some parts of datapath together.
• Registers are organized into a register file
• Due to memory-like nature of the register file, A select, B
select and Destination select become three addresses
• Write signal corresponds to Load Enable signal (when 1
registers can be loaded)
• Size of register file is 2mxn, m is number of register address
bits and n is number of bits per register
• ALU and shifter are grouped together to form a shared
function unit
• G select, H select and MF select are integrated to form FS
(function select)
Datapath
Control word
• Block diagram of a specific version of the datapath with 8
registers in register file (R0 to R7) is shown in the next slide.
• There are 16 binary control inputs for this datapath
• Their combined value specify a control word
• Control word consists of 7 parts called fields each designated
by letters
• Three register fields are three bits each
• The three bits of DA select one of eight registers for the result
of microoperation (destination register)
• The three bits of AA select one of eight registers for Bus A
input to ALU
• The three bits of BA select one of eight registers for 0 input of
MUX B
Control word
Control word
• Single MB bit determines whether Bus B carries the content
of selected source register or a constant value
• 4-bit FS controls the operation of the function unit
• Single bit MD selects the function unit output or data on Data
in as the input to Bus D
• Single bit RW determines whether a register is written or not.
• Functions of all meaningful fields are specified in table in the
next slide.
Control word
Control word
• Example: RR2+R3’+1
–
–
–
–
–
R2 is the A input of ALU
R3 is the B input of ALU
Operation to be performed is A+B’+1
R1 is the destination register
RW should be 1 to cause R1 to be written
Field:
Binary:
DA
001
AA
010
BA
011
MB
0
FS
0101
MD
0
RW
1
Simple computer architecture
• Programmable systems: can execute programs
• In a programmable system a portion of the input consists of
sequence of instructions.
• Instruction specifies the operation to be preformed, which
operands to use, where to place the results.
• To execute the instructions in sequence, the address of the
instruction to be performed is required
• This address comes from a register called program counter
(PC).
• Executing an instruction means activating the necessary
sequence of microoperations in the datapath required to
perform the instruction
Simple computer architecture
• User specifies operations to be performed and their sequence
using a program
• Program: list of instructions that specifies operations,
operands and the sequence
• Control unit reads an instruction from the memory and
decodes and executes the instruction by issuing a sequence of
microoperations.
• Ability to execute a program from memory is the most
important property of a general purpose computer
Simple computer architecture
• Instruction: a collection of bits that instruct the computer to
perform a specific operation
• Collection of instructions for a computer is called instruction
set
• An instruction is usually depicted by a rectangular box
symbolizing the bits of the instruction
• The bits are divided into groups called fields
• Operation code of an instruction (opcode) is a group of bits in
the instruction that specifies an operation (add, subtract, shift)
Simple computer architecture
• The operation must be performed using data stored in
computer registers or in memory
• An instruction must specify not only the operation but also the
registers or memory in which the operands are to be found
and the result to be placed
• We will consider a simple computer as an example.
Simple computer architecture
Simple computer architecture
• Our simple computer has 8 registers (R0-R7), three bits
require to identify each
• Three instruction formats for the simple computer are
illustrated here.
• First instruction format: an opcode, a destination register (DR)
a source register A (SA) and a source register B (SB)
• Second instruction format: an opcode, a destination register, a
source register and an operand
• Third instruction format: does not change any register, instead
affects the order in which the instructions are fetched from
memory
Simple computer architecture
Simple computer architecture
Simple computer architecture
• Location of an instruction to be fetched is determined by the
program counter (PC).
• Ordinary PC fetches instruction from sequential addresses but
a jump can be achieved if the content of PC is changed
• Third instruction format can create jump, it has an opcode,
one register field, and a split address field (AD)
• If based on the content of the register jump has to occur, the
address of new location from which the next instruction is to
be fetched, is formed by adding current PC and the content of
6 bit address field
Simple computer architecture
• 6 bit address is treated as a signed two’s complement
• To preserve two’s complement representation, signed
extension is applied to 6 bit address to form a 16 bit offset
• Signed extension:
– if the leftmost bit of the address field is a 1, then 10 bits to its left are
filled with 1’s to give a negative two’s complement offset.
– if the leftmost bit of the address field is a 0, then 10 bits to its left are
filled with 0’s to give a positive two’s complement offset.
• Example: PC=55, a branch is to occur to location 35 if the
content of R6 is zero.
– Opcode will be a branch on zero, SA would be specified as R6 and AD
would be 6-bit two’s complement of -20.
Instruction Specifications
• Instruction specification: describe each of the instructions that
can be executed by the system
• Mnemonic format: symbolic representation for the opcode
• Mnemonic format is converted to binary representation by a
program called assembler
Single-cycle computer
• Single cycle computer: a computer that fetches and executes
an instruction in a single clock cycle
• PC provides instruction address to instruction memory,
instruction output from the instruction memory goes to control
logic (instruction decoder)
• Output of instruction memory also goes to Extend and Zero
fill.
• Extend: provides address offset to the PC
– Append leftmost bit of 6-bit address offset field AD to the left of AD,
preserving two’s complement representation
• Zero fill: provides constant input to datapath
– Appends 13 zeros to the left of the OP field of the instruction
Single-cycle computer
• PC is updated in each clock cycle
• Behavior of PC is determined by opcode, N and Z.
– If a jump occures, new PC value is the value on bus A.
– If a branch is taken, new PC value is sum of previous PC value and
sign-extended address offset
– Otherwise PC is incremented by 1
• A jump occurs for bit 13 in the instruction equal to 1
• A branch occurs for bit 13 in the instruction equal to 0
• Condition for branch is selected by bit 9 of instruction
– bit 9 equal to 1: N is selected
– bit 9 equal to 0: Z is selected
Single-cycle computer
Single-cycle computer
Single-cycle computer
• Instruction decoder is a combinational circuit that provides all
of the control words for datapath based on the content of the
fields of the instruction.
• Some of the fields of control word can be obtained directly
from the content of the fields in the instruction
• DA, AA and BA are equal to the instruction fields DR, SA and
SB.
• BC (for selection of branch condition status bits) is taken
directly from last bit of Opcode.
Single-cycle computer
Single-cycle computer
• In order to design the decoder logic, we divide the various
instructions possible for the simple computer into different
types and then assign the first three bits of the opcode to
various types.
• The types assignment are based on the use of specific
hardware such as MUX B, Function unit, Register file, ….
Single-cycle computer
• Six instruction for our simple computer are listed in Table
10.11
• Suppose output of the instruction memory is the first
instruction, “Add Immediate”
• Based on the first three bits of opcode, 100, outputs of
instruction decoder will be: MB=1, MD=0, RW=1, MW=0
• Last three bits of instruction are extended to 16 bits by zero
fill
• Since MB=1, this zero-filled value is placed on bus B
• MD=0, the function unit output is selected
• Since the last four bits of the opcode are 0010, the operation is
A+B
Single-cycle computer
• Zero-filled value on bus B is added to content of register SA,
with the results presented on bus D
• Since RW=1, value on bus D is written to register DR
• Since MW=0, no write to memory occurs
• The entire operation takes place in a single clock cycle
• Since PL=0, PC is incremented
Single-cycle computer
• Second instruction: LD (load from memory), opcode 0010000
• First three bits 001 gives: MD=1, RW=1 MW=0
• These values and SA and DR fully specify the instruction:
load the content of memory address specified by SA into
register DR.
• PL=0 so PC is incremented
• JB and BC are ignored since this is neither a jump not a
branch
Single-cycle computer
• Third instruction, ST
• First three bits of opcode 010 give control signals: MB=0,
RW=0, MW=1
• MW=1 causes a memory write operation with address and
data from the register file
• RW=0 prevents writing to register file
• Address for the memory write comes from the register
selected by field SA and data for memory write comes from
register selected by SB, since MB=0
• DR is not used since no write occurs to a register
Single-cycle computer
• Sixth instruction is a conditional branch and manipulates the
PC value
• PL=1, so the PC is loaded instead of incremented
• JB=0 causing a conditional branch rather than a jump
• Since BC=0, register R[SA] is tested for a value of zero
• If R[SA]=0 the PC value becomes PC +se AD (se means sign
extended), otherwise PC is incremented
• DR and SB fields become 6-bit address fields AD which is
sign extended and added to PC
Single-cycle computer
•
Example: write a program for our simple computer to calculated 83-(2+3). Assume
that register R3 contains 248, location 248 in data memory contains 2, location 249
contains 83, and the result is to be place in location 250.
LD R1, R3
ADI R1, R1, 3
NOT R1, R1
INC R1, R1
INC R3, R3
LD R2, R3
ADD R2, R2, R1
INC R3, R3
ST R3, R2
Single-cycle computer
Multiple-cycle computer
• Single-cycle computer is not able to perform complex
operations (operations that cannot be completed in one clock
cycle such as multiplication)
• Single cycle computer has two separate 16-bit memories for
instructions and data.
– For a simple computer with instructions and data in the same 16-bit
memory, two read accesses of memory are required (one to load the
instruction and one to read or write the data)
– Since two different addresses must be applied to the memory address
inputs, at least two clock cycles are required.
Multiple-cycle computer
• Single cycle computer has a
longer worst case delay path and
therefore a lower limit on the
clock frequency
Multiple-cycle computer
Multiple-cycle computer
• We modify the architecture of the simple computer to a
multiple-cycle computer
• Separate instruction memory and data memory are replaced
with memory M.
• To fetch instructions, PC is the address source for memory
and to fetch data, Bus A is the address source.
• MUX M selects between these two address sources
• MUX M requires an additional control signal MM which is
added to the control word format
• Since instructions from M are needed in the control unit, a
path is added from its output to the instruction register IR.
Multiple-cycle computer
• In executing an instruction across multiple clock cycles, data
generated during current cycle if often needed in a later cycle.
• This data can be temporarily stored in a register.
• Registers used for temporary storage are usually not visible to
the user
• Second modification provides these temporary registers by
doubling the number of registers in register file.
• Registers 8 to 15 are temporary registers
Multiple-cycle computer
• During execution of a multiple-cycle instruction, PC must be
held at its current value for all but one of the cycles.
• To provide this hold capability, the PC is modified to be
controlled by a 2-bit control word, PS.
• Because of multiple cycles, instruction need to be held in a
register for use during its execution since its value may be
needed for more than just the first cycle.
• Register used for this purpose is the instruction register IR
• Since IR load only when an instruction is being read from
memory, it has a load-enable signal IL that is added to the
control word.
Multiple-cycle computer
• Because of multiple-cycle operation, a sequential control
circuit, which can provide a sequence of control words for
microoperations used to interpret the instruction is required
and replaces the Instruction decoder.
• The sequential control unit consists of the Control state
register and the combinational Control logic
• Control logic has state, opcode and status bits as its inputs and
produces control word as its output.
• Conceptually, control word is divided into two parts, one for
sequence control, which determines the next state of the
overall control unit, and one for Datapath control, which
controls the microoperations executed by Datapath and
Memory.
Multiple-cycle computer
• DX, AX, BX control register selection.
• If the MSB of one of these fields is ), corresponding register
address DA, AA or BA is that given by DR, SA and SB.
• If the MSB of one of these fields is 1, corresponding register
address is the content of fields DX, AX or BX.
• This selection process is performed by Register address logic,
which contains three multiplexers (one for each of DA, AA,
BA) controlled by the MSB of DX, AX and BX.
Multiple-cycle computer
Multiple-cycle computer
• NS in the control word provides the next state for the Control
State register
• The 2-bit PS field controls the program counter PC (00 holds
its state, 01 increment by 1, 10 load PC plus sign-extended
AD, 11 load the contents of R[SA].
• Instruction register is loaded only once during execution of an
instruction (IL=1 new instruction loaded, IL=0 instruction
remains unchanged)
Multiple-cycle computer
• Sequential control unit consists of Control state register and
combinational Control logic.
• Design of the sequential control logic can be performed by
developing its ASM chart and finding the state table using the
chart.
• We first develop ASM chart for instructions that can be
implemented with minimum number of clock cycles.
• For instructions requiring memory access for data as well as
instruction, at least two clock cycles are required: instruction
fetch and instruction execution
Multiple-cycle computer
Multiple-cycle computer
• Instruction fetch occurs in state INF
• PC has the address of instruction in memory M.
• This address is applied to the memory, and the word read from
memory is loaded into IR.
• In state EX0 the instruction is decoded by a vector decision
and the microoperations executing the instruction appear in
conditional boxes.
• For instructions that do not change PC content, PC is
incremented.
• Example: opcode 0000010 for ADD instruction adds the
content of register specified by SA to content of register
specified by SB and writes the result into register specified by
DR
Multiple-cycle computer
• Example: opcode 0010000 is load instruction (LD), which
uses value in register specified by SA for the address and
loads the data word from memory M into register specified by
DR
• Example: opcode 1100001 is branch on negative (BRN)
instruction.
– Decoding of this instruction causes the value in register specified by
SA to be passed through the Function unit in order to evaluate status
bits N and Z.
– N and Z then propagate back to Control logic
– Based on value of N, the branch is taken or not taken by adding the
extended address AD from the instruction to the value of PC or
incrementing PC
Multiple-cycle computer
• An example of an instruction that cannot be completed in two
cycles is “load register indirect” (LRI).
• In this instruction, content of register R[SA] addresses a word
in memory. The word, known as indirect address, is then used
to address the word in memory that is loaded into register
R[DR]
R[Dr]M[M[R[SA]]]
Multiple-cycle computer
• Following instruction fetch, state becomes EX0. In this state
R[SA] addresses the memory to obtain the indirect address
which is then placed in register R8.
• In the next state, EX1, next memory access occurs with
address from R8.
• The operand is placed in R[DR] to complete the operation and
PC is incremented.