Transcript Chapter 5

Territorial and Christian
Empires
The Roman Empire,
31 B.C.E.-410 C.E.
Territorial and Christian Empires
The Big Picture
Second Triumvirate
Death of Caesar
44 B.C.E.
Five Good Emperors
Pax Romana
50 C.E.
Edict of Tolerance
Persecution of Christians
350 C.E.
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The Pax Romana
– Caesar’s Murder (44 B.C.E.)
– The Second Triumvirate (43-33 B.C.E.): Approved by the Senate.
Marc Antony: Caesar’s right-hand man, manager of his wealth,
powerful general, and aggressive toward the Senate. Governs Egypt,
Greece, and the eastern provinces.
Octavian: Talented 19-year-old grandnephew and adopted
son of Caesar who called himself Caesar. Governs Italy and the
western provinces.
Lepidus: One of Caesar’s most loyal governors who rules North
Africa under the Second Triumvirate arrangement.
– Cleopatra: Anthony’s relationship with Cleopatra, who bore him twins,
caused tensions in Rome. Rumors spread that Anthony wanted to move
the Roman capitol to Alexandria, which kept him from marrying
Cleopatra.
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The Pax Romana
– Civil War: To firm up the alliance between Octavian and Marc Antony,
Antony married Octavia, Octavian’s sister, and impregnated her. But then
Anthony left for Egypt, and returned to Cleopatra. Leaving Octavia
alone, and dissolving the alliance between the families, and allowing for
the struggle over who would rule Rome to start again.
– Battle of Actium (31 B.C.E.): Anthony and Cleopatra risked everything
in a naval battle near the city of Actium on Greece’s west coast.
Octavian’s forces crushed their navy, and the couple abandoned their
troops and fled to Egypt, leaving Octavian in control.
– Death of Anthony and Cleopatra: Octavian’s land forces pursued the
couple to Egypt, and Anthony committed suicide. Cleopatra refused to be
taken prisoner, and supposedly let a poisonous asp bite her chest.
Cleopatra’s death marked the end of the last Hellenistic kingdom.
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The Pax Romana
A New Form of Governing
– Augustus: Octavian creates a new form of government that
doesn’t offend the conservative Romans. On Jan. 1, 27
B.C.E., the young general appears before the Senate and
declares that he has brought peace to Rome. Like
Cincinnatus, he says he’ll step down from power. The
Senate responds by giving him the title of Augustus, a
name that implied majesty and holiness.
– Principate: Octavian modestly calls himself princeps,
meaning “first citizen.” The government he created was
thus called the principate.
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The Pax Romana
A New Form of Governing
– Governmental Structure: Octavian allowed the Senate to
maintain its old roles, as did many of the magistrates and other
government officials. The power of the Senate even increased, as
he allowed it to administer some territories and take over many
of the elections from the assemblies. The vast complexity of the
many provinces and the management of the army required a
special magistrate: the princeps. By 70 B.C.E., the princeps was
increasing known as “imperator,” or “emperor,” which was a
term that troops had called their generals.
– Praetorian Guard: Augustus created a special unit of personal
bodyguards, who later would achieve considerable political
influence.
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The Pax Romana
A New Form of Governing
– Changes in the Administration of the Provinces: Augustus
created a foreign service that drew upon the equestrian (wealthy
plebeian) class. About half of the provinces—including wealthy
Egypt—stayed under his direct. He eliminated private tax
collectors, and stationed troops permanently in the provinces and
maintain fixed borders.
– Administrative Capacity: Only a few thousand Romans
administered some 50 million people by maintaining peace,
collecting taxes, and preventing power from accumulating. The
system worked for centuries after Augustus’s death, even
through the reigns of some very corrupt emperors.
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The Pax Romana
Augustus of Prima Porta
Sculpted ca. 20 B.C.E., what
does this statute tell you about
Romans hopes and ideas about
Augustus?
—Depicted in military garb, not the
toga of a politician
—Is barefoot with Cupid at his leg,
referring to his semi-divinity as a
supposed descendent of the goddess
Venus.
—Augustus did not allow himself
to be worshipped as a god, but
the idea that he was semi-divine spread.
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The Pax Romana
Augustan Literature
Virgil’s Aeneid: The greatest piece of literature of the
Augustan Age was produced under the emperor’s
patronage, composed ca. 29-19 B.C.E. It is an epic
poem of a Trojan hero, Aeneas, who wanders the
Mediterranean until he and his people settle and create
the precursor to Rome. The poem associated the
principate and Roman world domination with the
values of the early Roman republic. It echoed Homer,
but the values of Aeneas were closer to those of
Publius Vergilius Maro
Augustus rather than Achilles. Like Homer, the Vergil
70 – 19 B.C.E.
did create a document that encompassed Roman values that would serve as
a guide for centuries.
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The Pax Romana
Augustan Literature
Virgil’s Aeneid – First Lines (excerpt from “The Invocation of the Muse”)
Arma virumque cano, Troiae qui primus ab oris
Italiam, fato profugus, Laviniaque venit
litora, multum ille et terris iactatus et alto
vi superum saevae memorem Iunonis ob iram…
I sing of arms and the man, he who, exiled by fate,
first came from the coast of Troy to Italy, and to
Lavinian shores–hurled about endlessly by land and sea,
by the will of the gods, by cruel Juno’s remorseless anger…
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The Pax Romana
Augustan Literature
Livy’s Historia: Livy (59 B.C.E.-17 C.E.) was Rome’s greatest historian. His
work. The History of Rome (composed ca. 26 B.C.E. to 15 C.E.) recounted
the development of the city, and included many famous speeches. Like
Vergil, he emphasized the importance of Roman religion and morality, and
recognized that the future lay with new imperial form of government.
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The Pax Romana
Challenges to the Principate, 69-193 C.E.
– Augustus’s Successors: After Augustus’s death, no one could imagine
pursuing any other means of governance than the principate, but at the
same time, no one appeared as qualified or capable as the original “first
citizen.” None of Augustus’s immediate successors were as capable or
talented as he was. The problem of succession would plague the
government for the rest of Roman history.
– Tiberius (r. 14-37 C.E.): Augustus’s stepson and successor, according
to one historian pursued sexual extravagances and became increasingly
isolated, feeling that he did not have to answer to public opinion,
retiring to a villa on Capri in his later years. On occasion, he would
have people executed for capricious and unjust reasons.
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The Pax Romana
Challenges to the Principate, 69-193 C.E.
Augustus’s Successors: The great and wise Augustus was followed by a
group of terrible emperors; it is remarkable the government even survived.
The following succeeded the paranoid and withdrawn Tiberius:
– Caligula (r. 37-41 C.E.): This irrational if not insane emperor pursued
extreme pleasures and wanted to be worshiped as a god. The Praetorian
Guard assassinated him to preserve order.
– Claudius (r. 41-54 C.E.): The Romans viewed him as a weak-willed man
possibly controlled by his wives.
– Nero (r. 54-69 C.E.): Of the whole bad bunch, he was the most excessive
and tyrannical murder. He even murdered his own mother (trying to poison
her three times), and suffered from extreme paranoia. His own guard
abandoned him so to avoid public execution, he had his slave cut his throat.
Nero was the last emperor to have a direct family connection to Augustus.
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The Pax Romana
Challenges to the Principate, 69-193 C.E.
A New Dynasty: Luckily for Rome, a competent emperor, Vespasian (6981 C.E.), took power in 69 C.E., who had no family connections to
Augustus, starting a new dynasty called the Flavians. Yet his own son,
Domitian (r. 81-96), proved murderous and corrupt; but his
assassination did usher in a new era of peace.
– “Five Good Emperors” (r. 96-180 C.E.): These rulers increasingly
centralized power at the expense of the Senate, but with simplicity and an
adherence to old republican values. The five were Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian,
Antoninus Pius, and Marcus Aurelius
– Marcus Aurelius (r. 161-180 C.E.): Perhaps the most famous of the “Five
Good Emperors,” he was a stoic philosopher in his own right, with his
thoughts being published in his Meditations (171- ca. 180 C.E.), which
noted that those in power should remain humble since flatterers are
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frequently wrong.
The Pax Romana
Challenges to the Principate, 69-193 C.E.
– Provincial Defense: Centuries of Roman military presence
brought Roman-style cities, agriculture, and culture to the
frontiers of the empire, from Great Britain to Spain to
North Africa to the Middle East. Maintaining these farflung territories meant that emperors spent extended
periods away from Rome, like Hadrian (r. 117-138 C.E.),
who spent 12 of his 21-year rule abroad, establishing
fortifications and checking on provincial administration.
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The Pax Romana
HADRIAN’S WALL (border of England and Scotland)
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The Pax Romana
Challenges to the Principate, 69-193 C.E.
– End of the Five Good Emperors: The four predecessors
of Marcus Aurelius (r. 161-180 C.E.) did not have sons, so
they hand-picked their successors, and thus chose good
men. But Marcus Aurelius did have a son, and he was
really not fit for leadeship: Commodus (r. 180-192). Cruel,
murderous, but simple-minded, he loved the gladiatorial
games so much that he shocked Romans by appearing in
the arena as a gladiator himself, dressed as Hercules. His
murder in 192 C.E. brought civil strife and an end to the
Pax Romana.
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City of Rome During the Empire
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The Pax Romana
A Vibrant, Far-Flung Empire
– Running an Empire: It is hard for us to manage in an age of instant
communication how difficult the management of an empire the size of
Rome’s was when the fastest information could move was at the speed
of a horse. And remarkably, it continued to work smoothly even when
vicious and corrupt emperors were in power.
– Colonies: Romans had created colonies to give land to soldiers since
the time of the Republic. Augustus expanded the idea, giving land and
citizenship to auxiliary non-citizen troops in exchange for 24 years of
service. Cities across the empire all had the same amenities: theaters,
bathhouses, a colosseum, and well-built roads (many of which still
exist today).
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The Roman Empire, 44 B.C.E.-284 C.E.
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The Pax Romana
A Vibrant, Far-Flung Empire
– Provincial Administration: Local officials took care of daily governance,
collecting taxes to maintain public servicess like water systems and public
markets. They collected census data on populations and agricultural
production, and sent these reports back to their superiors in Rome. Some
accountability to central authority and the Romanization of colonized peoples
held the empire together.
– Roads and Transportation: Hauling goods overland was enormously
expensive; it was cheaper to send goods across the Mediterranean than ship
them 75 miles overland. Yet Roman roads were of a high quality, and officials
created a system that provided fresh horses to travelers and that monitored the
movement of heavy goods was set up. Those who traveled lightly could cover
as much as 90 miles in a day.
– Imperial Diversity: The empire boasted an astounding multi-ethnic
composition. Education often encompassed three languages: Latin, Greek, and
a local language. Climates ranged from rainy Britain to desert North Africa.
Merchants traveled constantly, and 300,000 soldiers were constantly on the
move to defend 6,000 miles of border.
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Life During the Peace of Rome
A New Decadence
– Extremes of Wealth and Poverty: The extreme difference between
rich and poor had begun during the Republic, but those with money
started to flaunt it in a way that would have been frowned upon
previously. Silks and embroidery replaced the rough wool of the
republican toga. Satirists made fun of women with excessive make-up
and elaborate hairstyles, and men who dressed flamboyantly.
– Pompeii: The eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 C.E. provides a
snapshot of regular urban life in Rome in time. The hot ash literally
froze people in the midst of their daily routines, from bakers to
fishmongers to wealthy men and women in their villas.
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Life During the Peace of Rome
The Problem with Population and Medicine
– Legislating Morality: Laws first passed by Augustus
against people who remained unmarried too long or
committed adultery—all meant to strengthen family
values—were largely ignored under the empire.
– Birthrates: Strangely, Roman birthrates plummeted during
the empire. Augustus passed a law that exempted females
from male guardianship if they gave birth to three children.
Women continued to practice a range of forms of birth
control and abortions.
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Life During the Peace of Rome
The Problem with Population and Medicine
– Sexual and Medical Misunderstandings: Contrary to our
understanding of the Romans, they were relatively conservative about
sex. They thought sex drained male vital life forces, and thought the
semen was created from brain fluid and thus needed to be conserved.
Doctors also thought that women were most fertile after their menstrual
periods. These misunderstandings contributed to the society’s
reproductive problems.
– Galen (131-201 C.E.): Despite these misunderstandings, Roman
medicine was very influential for the next 1,500 years. Galen, a
physician, used methods of scientific observation and even vivisection
to understand various processes. He mostly believed that disease was a
product of excesses and imbalances within the body between the “four
humors”: blood, bile, urine, and phlegm. If a person was feverish or
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flushed, he or she had an excess of blood and needed to be bled.
Life During the Peace of Rome
The Games
– The Arena: Under the Empire, the
arena replaced the Forum as a place for
the expression of popular will. “Bread and
Circuses” kept the masses under control.
– Colosseum: Built by Emperor Vespasian
ca. 70-80 C.E. as a gift to the people, it
could seat 50,000 and featured an elaborate
retractable awning to protect spectators
from the sun.
– Hypogeum: Today, the ruins of the
structure reveal an elaborate system of tunnels
and cells underneath what would have been
the arena’s wooden floor. This area housed
prisoners awaiting execution and wild
animals used in the shows.
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Life During the Peace of Rome
A Day at the Colosseum: In the morning crowds would gather to watch
executions of condemned criminals, often by wild animals like panthers or lions. In
the later Empire, Christians would be executed in this way. The afternoon would
feature gladiator contests, who at first were condemned criminals trained to fight;
later slaves were trained for the purpose. At first they were part of funeral rites for
emperors, but they became more frequent, with games being sponsored by the state
or wealthy men wanting to curry the favor of the people.
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Crisis and Transformation
The Military Monarchy:
Septimius Severus (r. 193-211)
– Power of the Army: The army had grown strong
under the military policies of the Five Good Emperors,
so after the assassination of Commodus, they flexed
their political muscle and placed a prominent general
on the throne, Septimius Severus.
– Militarization: His coming to power marked the militarization of the
principate, and a break from Roman tradition. He was from North Africa
and spoke Latin with a foreign accent. His power was not derived from
cooperation with the Senate, as it had been with Augustus, but from the
army, thus creating a military dictatorship. He also raised the pay of
soldiers to guarantee their loyalty, and militarized many civilian offices,
strengthening the overall power of the army.
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Crisis and Transformation
The Military Monarchy
– Severan Dynasty: Septimius Severus’s successors were not as effective,
starting with his son Caracalla (211-217), a ruthless emperor who was
murdered while on campaign.
– Period of Chaos: From 235 to 285, many generals from all over the
empire challenged current throne-holders, leading to a period of constant
fighting and a series of what historians have called “barrack-room
emperors.”
– Border Wars: during the 200s, the empires borders increasingly
challenged by Germanic tribes to the north and the Persians to the east.
– Recession, Inflation, and Plague: Also during the 200s, Romans faced
inflation since territorial expansion stopped but the demand for luxury
goods did not. Currency became debased so as to lose a tremendous
amount of value. Making matters worse, plague spread from China of the
Silk Road trade route.
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Crisis and Transformation
The Reforms of Diocletian, 285-305 C.E.
– “Living God”: Diocletian was a general who rose to the
rank of emperor and insisted on the title “Lord” and
demanded to be worshipped as a god (emperors had often
been deified after their deaths), thus ending the principate.
– Tetrarchy: To overcome problems of communication and
succession, Diocletain split the governance of the Empire
between four men, creating the “tetrarchy” in 293 C.E. He
ruled the wealthy East and his partner, Maximian, ruled the West. The two
“augusti” adopted a “caesar”—a junior emperor—as successor to each.
– Military Reforms: Diocletian reversed the policy of Septimius Severus by
once again separating civilian and military offices, so generals could not be
governors of territories and lead armies at the same time.
– Economic Reforms: To control inflation, Diocletian imposed price and
wage freezes, which helped but led to a thriving black market economy.
These reforms often made the well off retreat from public life, becoming
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increasingly isolated on their great estates known as latifundia.
Diocletian’s Division of the Empire, 304 C.E.
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Crisis and Transformation
The Capital Moves East
– The Tetrarchy Dissolves: Diocletian and Maximian
stepped down in 305 C.E. as planned, but succession did not
proceed smoothly, with much fighting and strife.
– Constantine: A son of Maximian’s chosen caesar,
Constantine (r. 306-337), gained the upper hand by 324 C.E.
after a series of civil wars between those with claims to the
tetrarchy.
– “Nova Roma”: In 330 C.E., Constantine decided to build a new capital for
the Empire on the site of the old Greek city of Byzantium, located on the
seaway between the Black Sea and the Mediterranean, on the trade route
between Europe and Asia. The influence of Rome and the old Roman Senate
had little to do with the governance of the Empire anymore. The city later
became known as Constantinople; over a thousand years later it would be
renamed “Istanbul,” after its conquest by Islamic forces.
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Crisis and Transformation
The Capital Moves East
– Western Provinces Under Pressure: Germanic tribes from the north
increasingly pressured the borders, while people with power and wealth
retreated into the confines of their estates, even hiring their own mercenary
armies rather than rely on the central government for protection. After
Constantine’s death in 337, some emperors even invited the Germans in,
although they were treated poorly.
– Roman Defeat: In 378 C.E., a Roman force under Emperor Valens was
beaten by a smaller force of Goths, who used cavalry to smash the Roman
lines, thus destroying the centuries-old reputation of invincibility of the
Roman legions. Emperor Valens himself was killed in the battle.
– Sack of Rome: In 410 C.E., a marauding Germanic tribe, the Visigoths,
sacked Rome. There continued to be a western emperor and a co-ruler in
Constantinople, but the western empire began to lose any real political or
military existence.
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The Longing for Religious
Fulfillment
– Religious Longing: Romans strayed further from the traditional
Roman gods as their empire expanded and enveloped different
cultures, but a religious longing persisted that expressed itself in a
variety of philosophies, movements, and cults that had their origins
across the empire.
– Neoplatonism: Derived from traditional Platonic philsophy, this
spiritual philosophy gained influence among the educated classes
in the late empire. It argued that every person contained a spark of
the divine that could be cultivated through serious contemplation.
It created an elaborate system that tried to map out the connection
between the human and the divine, and had strong mystical
elements.
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The Longing for Religious
Fulfillment
Mystery Cults
The cults that had spread during the Hellenistic period became even more popular
during the late Roman Empire. They were called “mystery” cults because one
had to be initiated into the secret rites of the religion.
– Cult of Dionysus: Men and women believed they could get closer to this
ancient Greek god of wine and rebirth through drinking, engaging in sex
acts, and eating the raw flesh of beasts. Such rites helped bring on an
ecstatic state.
– Cult of Isis: The cult of the ancient Egyptian goddess of fertility, became
and her consort Osiris—known as Serapis in the Greco-Roman world—
also being important. The emperor Septimius Severus, a North African,
often had he and his wife depicted as Serapis and Isis.
– Mithraism: This cult was popular among Roman soldiers and revolved
around a Persian god, Mithras, who slew a bull and who took part in a
ritual feast with a sun god. Feasting in underground chambers were part
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of the rites that the soldier undertook.
The Longing for Religious
Fulfillment
The Faces of Judaism
Judaism had split into several different sects by the time of Augustus. Herod
had been made king of Judah with Roman support, and was unpopular
among Jews, exacerbating communal divisions.
– Sadducees: Mostly the priestly elite who were focused on worship at
the Temple in Jerusalem. They were conservative, rejecting new ideas
like angels and the resurrection of the dead. But they were willing to
compromise with Roman authorities as long as the Temple was secure.
They were no longer influential after Emperor Titus destroyed the
Temple in 70 C.E.
– Pharisees: This group emphasized Jewish purity laws and refused all
compromise with the Hellenized world, adhering strictly to dietary laws
and maintaining their separateness. They did accept new ideas about
angels and resurrection, and emphasized private worship of Jews all
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over the Roman world, not just worship at the Temple.
The Longing for Religious
Fulfillment
The Faces of Judaism
– Zealots: This group advocated open military revolt against Roman
rule, and restoring Israel as an independent state. This group frequently
clashed with Roman authorities.
– Essenes: This group retreated from the world by setting up a
community on a mountain in the desert, alienating themselves from the
Temple cult. The Essenes were largely forgotten until 1947, when a
shepherd boy found jars deep in a cave holding scrolls created by this
sect, which became known as the Dead Sea Scrolls.
– The Messiah: Many Jews began believing in the coming of the
Messiah during this turbulent era, a savior of the Jewish people. The
Zealots thought he would be a political leader, while the Essenes
thought he was going to be a spiritual teacher. Into this environment
Jesus of Nazareth was born.
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Israel at the Time of Jesus
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The Longing for Religious
Fulfillment
The Jesus Movement
– Jesus: He was born during the reign of Augustus, around 4 B.C.E.,
possibly in Bethlehem, which is ten miles from Jerusalem. The gospels
and other sources say little about his first 30 years.
– Heavenly Kingdom: He spoke not of political revolution, but of a
heavenly kingdom. For three years, he preached a message of peace,
love, and caring for the poor and suffering, drawing huge crowds. His
growing popularity alarmed both Jewish and Roman authorities, so
around 29 C.E., the Roman governor Pontius Pilate sentenced him to
death by crucifixion.
– Apostles: Jesus’s followers claimed to have seen him resurrected from
the dead three days after his execution, proving his divinity and
promise of resurrection. The apostles took it upon themselves to spread
Jesus’s message to other Jews, most notably Peter, who preached to
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Gentiles, but said they’d have to keep Jewish dietary restrictions.
The Longing for Religious
Fulfillment
The Jesus Movement and the Jews
– Paul of Tarsus: The question of accepting non-Jews (called
Gentiles) into the Jesus movement was a tricky one. Paul of Tarsus,
Hellenized Jew who did not know Jesus in his lifetime, saw a vision
of Jesus and was instructed to not limit the message just to Jewish
communities. He removed dietary restrictions from the
requirements of Christian practice and traveled across the eastern
Empire to spread the message to both Jews and Gentiles alike.
– Destruction of the Temple: Soon after the death of Peter and Paul,
religions tensions between Jews and Roman came to head,
particularly with the Zeaolots, and Titus, the son of Emperor
Vespasian, led an army the sacked and destroyed Jerusalem and the
great Temple, leaving only the “Wailing Wall” intact.
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The Longing for Religious
Fulfillment
The Jesus Movement and the Jews
– Dispersion of Jews: With the Roman attack, the Essene community
at Qumran was destroyed even before troops approached Jerusalem.
Jews scattered all over Judaea and the Mediterranean, taking many
followers of the Jesus movement with them.
– Resolving Tensions within Judaism: The destruction of the
Temple resolved many tensions: the Sadducees, Essenes, and
Zealots were all destroyed, and Pharisee practice became ascendant
out of necessity (they and the Essenes were the sects that did not tie
worhsip to the Temple).
– Spread of Christianity: Jerusalem’s destruction also guaranteed
that Christianity would not be based in one city.
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The Spread of Christianity to 311 C.E.
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The Longing for Religious
Fulfillment
Early Christian Communities
– Small Urban Groups: Christians initially came together in
urban areas, meeting once a week at each other’s houses since
there were not yet designated places of worship. They read
scripture and prayed together, and culminated the ceremony in
the Eucharist: the eating of pieces of bread and drinking wine
that represented Jesus’s body and blood.
– Slow but Steady Growth: By the third century, one estimate
puts the number of Christians at 200,000 across the Empire, or
less than 0.5 percent of the population. Despite their small
numbers, their presence in urban centers sometimes put them in
conflict with Roman authorities.
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From Christian Persecution
to the City of God
Looking for Christian Scapegoats
– Conflict with Conservative Romans: In general, conservative
Romans frowned upon any religious innovations, but particularly
disdained a movement that included the poor, slaves, and women
within its congregation as equals.
– Catacombs: The Christian belief in resurrection led the community
to want to keep the bodies of the dead nearby, so they built secret
underground tunnels in which to keep their dead. They may have
also hid there in times of persecution.
– Scapegoating: Emperor Nero initiated the long Roman tradition of
persecuting Christians by looking for a group to blame for the
devastating fire in Rome, launching a persecution campaign in 64
C.E. Many Christians who were brought to the arena to die did so
bravely, leading to more converts.
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From Christian Persecution
to the City of God
Looking for Christian Scapegoats
– Emperors Decius and Diocletian: Under these emperors, Romans
were required to sacrifice to the emperor and obtain a certificate of
compliance. Many Christians defied these orders and were executed
in the arena, often by wild animals.
– Constantine (r. 306-337): Emperor Constantine supposedly had a
vision before a battle that told him to fight under the sign of the
cross. He did so and won, leading him to support the Christian
movement. In 313, he issued an edict of toleration, and ended the
persecution of Christians. Furthermore, he gave Christian priests tax
advantages, allowed Christian advisors into his inner circle, and
even had family members who were Christians. He supposedly
converted on his death bed.
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From Christian Persecution
to the City of God
The Empire Adopts Christianity
– Emperor Theodosius I (r. 379-395): He forbid the worship of the old
Roman cults, thereby making Christianity the official religion of the
Empire.
– Jews, Christians, and Pagans: Judaism remained strong, while those
who clung to old Roman beliefs became known as pagans, from the word
pagani, which means a backward peasant, which demonstrates
Christianity’s hold on urban centers.
– Christianity Changes: The merging of government and religion changed
both Christianity and the Empire. Rather than gathering in houses,
Christians gathered in elaborate churches that displayed great wealth.
Theologian Augustine complained that some converted only to impress the
wealthy. Depictions of Jesus Christ go from being a humble shepherd to a
figure wearing imperial purple robes.
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– Christian organization
From Christian Persecution
to the City of God
The Empire Adopts Christianity
– Christian Organization: The Church began to imitate the
civil organization of Rome as it had been rearranged under
Diocletian, with local units known as dioceses, and placed
bishops in charge of these.
– Challenging Emperors: As the church became stronger, it
began to challenge the emperors, such as when the bishop of
Milan criticized Theodosius for massacring rebellious
citizens, excommunicating him from the church until he
repented. Later, bishops of Rome came to be known as popes,
who headed of the church, and took on more earthly power.
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From Christian Persecution
to the City of God
The Empire Adopts Christianity
– Augustine (354-430): The influential theologian, in his work, City of God, tried
to work out the complexities of Christianity’s new position of working within a
sympathetic rather than a hostile state. He was also well known for his
Confessions, which described his struggles with his “habits of lust.”
– City of God: In this work, Augustine explained that the world and cities were
populated by people in constant struggle between their earthly and spiritual
selves. Those who allowed the spiritual to prevail lived in a heavenly City of
God, while those who allowed earthly matters to predominate lived in earthly
cities. The community of the faithful existed outside of this world, and would
predominate at the end of time, and thus people should not worry about Rome’s
sacking. Augustine drew on his Neoplatonist background heavily in this work.
– Heresy: Over time, the state became involved in policing the “correct” doctrine.
Those who were labeled “heretics” veered from mainstream Christian thought,
and frequently were punished, and even put to death.
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From Christian Persecution
to the City of God
The New Roman
– Roman Life Transformed: Under Christian influence,
gladiatorial games were forbidden, replaced entirely by chariot
races. Classical literature, like Vergil, could be read, but only to
extract a Christian message (Vergil and Plato to some extent
were considered “pre-Christians”). Christians placed greater
emphasis on caring for the poor.
– Christian Sexuality: Some Christian leaders promoted celibacy
as the ideal life, while others encouraged the duty to marry and
procreate. Yet Augustine wrote that even intercourse within
marriage was somewhat suspect, and that Christians needed to
police themselves constantly against lustful urges.
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The Holy Life
The Influence of Holy People
– Ascetics: Some people retreated alone into the desert to live a
completely spartan existence that would not interfere with this
contemplation.
– Monasticism: Others chose to retreat in to highly disciplined
and sexually chaste communities organized around prayer and
contemplation.
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