HOME BASED WORK OF WOMEN: A STUDY IN THE UNORGANIZED SECTOR IN DELHI SMITA GUPTA SENIOR FELLOW INDIAN SCHOOL OF WOMEN’S STUDIES AND DEVELOPMENT NEW DELHI, INDIA

‘ Home based work’ is a prominent form of employment in India, confirmed too by macro data. The extension of global production chains to include workers in developing economies, with home workers forming the bottom most link in the chain has increased this as a ‘putting out’ form of wage labour

It is not just that they are a part of the unorganized sector, but also their invisibility compounds vulnerabilities as an informal labour force. Staying within the confines of their homes, they are made invisible and remain dispersed, as a workforce

. Home based work increases the profits of the employers by reducing the cost of running a work place and by freeing themselves from labour regulations and mandates of proving social security to their employees.

Subcontracting to home based work is also an effective cover up for several malpractices like the employment of child labor. The problem has merely shifted from the organized sector to the more invisible home based work, which are being outsourced by the very firms maintaining a ‘child labor free’ status within!.

In addition to all the problems characterizing many informal sector workers, like having no legal recognition, job insecurity, not getting minimum wages or any forms of social security, women in HBW have the additional problems of long hours of work, susceptibility to health hazards, vulnerability due dependence on middle men for work, credit and even financial help during crisis.

An overwhelming proportion (93 percent) of the non-agricultural employment in the Indian economy is in the unorganized sector. Home based workers constitute about 7.4 percent of the unorganized non agricultural workers. Nearly 8.2 million workers were estimated to be home based workers, out of which 4.8 million were women

This study is based on data collected through a primary survey of 500 home workers, supplemented by GDs in Delhi on the socio-economic profile of home workers with and their work and working conditions. It was part of a much bigger 27000 household survey of the working poor in Delhi NCR at Insitute of Human Development, Delhi Study to explore the socio-economic conditions of home workers, especially women by assessing their source of livelihood, degree of its vulnerability, migration status, housing conditions, working conditions and access to financial services and social security programmes.

The survey was conducted at the homes of the workers at different locations in Delhi and NCR with JMS/AIDWA, Delhi and Sanjha Manch

Definitions of home based work and home workers

The Independent Group on Home Based Workers in India (2007), defined ‘home’ as (i) dwelling unit and/or (ii) structure attached to dwelling unit and/or (iii) open area adjacent to the dwelling unit. And home-based workers as: a) own-account workers and contributing family workers helping the own-account workers, involved in the production of goods and services in their homes for the market; and b) Workers carrying out work in their homes for remuneration, resulting in a product or service as specified by the employer(s), irrespective of who provides the equipment, materials or other inputs used (from ILO Convention?)and those contributing family workers helping such workers Home workers or dependent subcontract workers can be engaged by international chains of production or work for national or local markets. There are two types of industrial subcontracting: 1. One is horizontal subcontracting, where raw materials are not provided to the workers and 2. the other is vertical subcontracting, which provides raw materials with work orders. The former characterizes more independent production relationship and in this system, the status of home workers is more close to that of self employed home based workers

• •   The National Commission for Enterprises in Unorganised Sector(2007) defines home based workers as consisting of two types of workers: Independent employers/ own account workers Dependent subcontract workers According to this report, the second category of workers constitutes the home workers, who fall in an intermediate position between self employed and wage workers/ employee (NCEUS, 2007). This is the category we focused on in the AIDWA survey. Im the SWM survey, we looked at the former.

Study of 500 garbage/SWM workers in Delhi NCR also undertaken which clearly shows how urban renewal mission which forced states to 'enclose' waste by declaring it state-owned has reduced women in this sector from independent collectors, sorters and sellers to home based sorters. The illegalization of collection has meant male only night collection (stealing it from dhalaons) with increase in violence and bribe exactions by police, municipal authorities. Collection is now dangerous and has become 'males only'. Women are reduced to sorting and storing the waste at home which is then sold to agents of wholesalers at their homes at a pittance with most items fetching between 30 to 40 percent of the market price. A single extraeconomic measure - the SWM Act - has made these women subject to sexual violence and hardships, removing them from public spaces and confinig them with the waste to their shanties near drains and dumps.

• With sex ratio of 968 women per 1000 men, the population covered under the survey largely belonged to the age group of 15 59 (63.3 %), followed by ‘7-14’ and ‘under 6’ age groups. Around 60 % of the households belonged to Schedule Caste. The General Category constituted 21 % while 14 % of the household belonged to OBCs. • The educational attainment among respondents was low, as only 13 % of the working age group (15-59) people could finish schooling up to senior secondary level, while among the school going age group only 15 % could make it up till secondary school level. • Most of the households have status of residents with around 85 % of the families residing in NCR for more than 20 years. • The main reason for migration was found to be better employment opportunities (64.8 %) followed by marriage (20.5). There were quite few households (33) who send remittances to their native places an average sum of Rs. 2572.

• Around 49 % of the houses were pucca (roof and walls) followed by 38 % semi-pucca houses, while around 8 % of the houses are still kutcha. • Around 42 % lived in authorized colonies while 31 % lived in unauthorized colonies. • 75 % of the respondents owned their houses and 15 % rented accommodations. 8 % lived with family members or relatives.

• 46 % had flush toilet and 8 % had pit toilets of their own. 5% still practiced open defecation since they had no access to shared/public toilets.

• Around 50 % of the households have tap in the dwelling, while 32 % of the household fulfill their water needs from public tap. • Almost all the households, except 4, were electrified • Around 60 % have only one room and 26 % have two rooms to accommodate the entire family. There is a severe constraint of living space faced by the home workers who have to carry out their works along with household tasks simultaneously within that small and limited living space.

ASSETS • 88.4 % have gas stoves for cooking purposes, • 83.5% have television sets • 67 % having cable connections • 37.3 % owning coolers and all have electric fans • 28 % of the households owned refrigerators.

• 73 % of households owned mobile or landline phones • 30 % of the households owned scooter, motorcycle or cycle for local commutations • 50 % have either a bank account or a post office saving account

Percentage distribution of work status by gender

Nature of Employment Employer Own account worker Piece rated worker Regular wage (salaried) Casual wage labourer Unpaid family worker Student Unemployed Male Female Total 1.04 6.07 3.56 25.60 16.10 1.04 35.40 5.48 0 0.57 1.64 4.09 44.00 21.70 2.19 15.10 0.55 9.16 5.11 2.86 33.40 34.50 2.92 4.33 Most of the women workers were found to be engaged in piece rate works, the kind of work predominantly found among home workers. Men are mostly employed as regular wage earner or casual labourers.

• It is of course true that homebased work has existed since early civilization everywhere in the World. Some of the oldest traditional occupations and crafts, like weaving and spinning, were done at home; • Today some of the most 'modern' industries and occupations in automobiles, computer technology, telecommunications are moving away from the factory shop floor into workers’ homes.

• As the literature too notes, each production process is disaggregated into its smallest separable task and being put-out at the lowest possible piece-rate wage through a complex myriad of intermediation to convert workers’ homes in urban slums into their individual workplaces. "This is the opposite of the assembly line in the sense that the sequential inter-dependence of different components of the labour process in a unified single geographical space is replaced by intermediaries sequentially linking the labour process sub components by reaching the inputs with specification to the spatially atomized home workers." • In home work in our sample, 83 % are vertical HBWs and deal only with contractors who subcontract work to them. 14 % are horizontal own account home workers. There are a few others working for partnership enterprises, enterprises of a co-operative or trust, non-profit organizations, private limited companies and employer’s household works.

• There are a wide variety of occupations undertaken by the home workers, which are listed below in a descending order of importance.

• Embroidery and beads work on cloth, cloth stitching, bindi , key chain/ ring , bead necklace, eyelet work, thread cutting (clothes), whistle , segregate gond, nut-bolt work, paper bags/ envelope, ripit work, hair band/clip , rubber band , electric parts, plastic toy/camera, plastic bulb holder, card board related work, footwear, knitting, bobbings used in sewing machines, piece cutting, bottle cap, rakhi, tag, etc. • The other occupations found among the respondents included condom packet , fixing buttons in bags, juda , mobile charger, momos, packing milk products, pasting paper on bottle caps, screen assembly, slipper (thread) cutting, socks packing, separate stems of artificial flowers, dye-related work, cloth washing, cup , dari , doll , gloves , jute bag , dairy milk toner, bunches of ghungharoos, thread, parts used in clocks, oil formation removal, parts used in shake maker machines, plastic cutting, plastic flower/stick/pluck, plastic rubber cutting, ironing, broom , school bag / stitching, stitching bun rubber, stitching rubber hair band, sweet boxes, pulling copper wire from used tyres and buttons.

• Most of the home workers have acquired skills by simple observation or working as a helper. The low level of skills required make it easier for the women, who also have to carry out household activities, carving out a source of livelihood and an additional source of income by doing home based works.

• Around 95 per cent of the respondents said that their current occupational engagement is entirely based upon acquired skills. Of all respondents only around 5 per cent were in the occupation which requires traditional skills. • 43 per cent learnt while observing others work. Only 5 per cent have undergone training in institutes like ITI, ITC etc., while around 27 per cent of the workers were trained by the person providing the work .

• • • • There is little or no control of home workers on the production process, since means of production and specification are mostly provided by contractors / middlemen between various firms and home workers. Due to lack of their recognition as workers and complete invisibility in the production chain, home workers become vulnerable to exploitation and harassment with almost no bargaining power. Moreover home workers have to hand over the finished products to the contractor only, since they have no direct access to market.

Only 8 per cent were not given any specification The raw materials for the work is given mostly (90 per cent) by the contractor and 9 per cent of the home workers procured the raw materials themselves. The tools/equipments are provided by jobbers/contractors to 61 per cent. A considerable number of home workers (37 per cent) arrange these tools/equipments on their own. Not surprisingly, 88 per cent hand over the final products to jobbers/ contractors who have provided raw materials/inputs and specifications. Those who send the finished products directly to consumers comprise around 6 per cent while only 2 per cent send it to the wholesalers and retailers.

• Availability of the work varies throughout the year   16 per cent work for 0-3 months 28 per cent of the home workers work for 4-6 months  55 per cent work for 7-12 months • The availability of work also depends upon the seasonal demands like festivals, weddings, traditional rituals etc. While 46 per cent of the works undertaken by the home workers are of perennial nature, 54 per cent are seasonal and temporary in nature.

• Also supply of works is solely dependent upon contractors. • 68 per cent said the amount of work was decided by the contractor.

• 85 per cent reported falling availability of work and lower monetary earnings in the past 5 - 7 years

Problems faced by home based workers:

• Some of the problems faced by the homeworkers include • space constraint and conflict over this at home, • delays and arbitrary deductions in payment by the contractors, • during power cut they have to work on streets due to poor lighting in houses, • fluid work day when; male members return home or they have guests they have to stop their work, resume late night after finishing house work • Repeated visits to the contractor to get the raw materials; procuring and storing raw materials • To meet their deadline older and younger family members are engaged in the work • Harassment by contractor

• The payments to home workers are mostly made on monthly basis but a considerable number of workers (21 per cent) said that it is given on workers demand. Delay in payment of wages is quite common as 53 per cent of the home workers complained of getting their payments delayed. Moreover there have instances where contractors have deducted money from their payments on the pretext of poor quality of products or for providing tools or equipments or any delay in delivery of the final goods. • There are issues regarding meeting the delivery deadlines as well since home workers, who have additional household responsibilities, sometimes could not deliver the products on time. They have taken up various measures to insure the timely delivery or to make up for the delay which includes working for longer hours, asking for the extension of the deadline, returning the order, engaging other family workers, children skipping schools, exchanging labour from friends, hire workers or borrow finished products from other home.

• One serious issue of concern pertaining to home workers is the occupational health problems, as most of these workers are often doing tedious work in the crammed space of their homes, having to make adjustments in sharing space with other family members • Eye related health problems are the highest mentioned ailments caused due to home based occupations. Around 15 per cent of the workers have complained of having pain or irritation in eyes. As mentioned earlier, most of the occupations found among home workers i. e. embroidery and beads work on cloth, cloth stitching, etc., have to be carried out attentively and minutely which causes stress upon eyes. Moreover, poor lighting further causes harm to eye sight. • Joint problems, neck and lower backache and headache are the other highest cited problems. They identified their body posture while working, long hours of work, restricted work place, handling of tools, poor lighting and timing of work as reasons for their health problems. • Around 40 percent of the workers mentioned getting injured at work. Cuts/ injuries from needle, scissors, hammers and knife and, allergy from the use of some raw materials are also among various health problems faced by the home workers.

On an average these home workers are only earning around Rs.921 monthly. 52 per cent of the home workers earn less that Rs 500 per month. The home based women workers covered under this survey earn very little in a day. The drudgery involved in such work makes it self-evident that such work would not be done unless driven by distress.

Household-wise monthly income from home work

Income Categories Percent <500 51.7 501-1000 1001-3000 28.6 15.3 3001-5000 5001-10000 Mean 2.7 1.7 921.3

The average hours of work varied greastly, and were very difficult to determine due to the fact that the very nature of the work makes it fill into the few minutes or hours that can be snatched from housework. Some of the investigators stayed for a week in the basti to record this, and found the hours of work to vary between 4 and 18, depending on deadlines and household responsibilities (and festivals, etc.) Based on this data, we tried to calculate a time rate from this data, which worked out to an average of Rs 6 per hour. Intersetingly, the highest time rate was for local festival driven products like pichkaris for holi or Anna Hazare caps or Rakhis (though they did complain about cheaper substitutes from China!).

The lowest was for the modern sectors like mobiles, computers and automobiles

• Although there are various social security schemes from state as well as central governments for labourers working in informal/unorganized but recipients of such schemes are found to be quite few in our survey. • Except for different education schemes for children, old age & widow pension and Janani Suraksha Yojana, the overall picture is quite disheartening. • Interestingly awareness about various schemes is quite high as compared to their outreach among the home workers. Awareness of schemes like Ladli Yojana of Delhi (87 per cent), Ration Cards (94.3 per cent) and Mid day meal (97 per cent) is quite high among the surveyed households but its beneficiaries are quite few. • The picture further worsen with schemes like Swarna Jayanti Sahari Rojgar Yojana and Urban Self Employment Programme which are meant for workers in unorganized sector, have lowest awareness level among home workers and none of the households get benefits from them. Other important schemes like Health Insurance, ICDS, and National Family Benefit Scheme also meet the same fate.

TOWARDS A NEW APPROACH TO ORGANIZE AND PROVIDE SOCIAL SECURITY • The number of intermediaries between the principal employer and the person who interfaces with home workers is very large. Most of the workers did not know the company or the principal employer for whom they were working. In the case of very few activities such as fitting keypads for mobiles/ cell phones and making fittings for car companies, the identity of the employer is recognized. This invisibility of the employer makes it very difficult to identify and hold them accountable for minimum wages and other worker facilities. • Out of nearly 60 home based occupations identified in the survey, each household is engaged in a multiplicity of these in a year cutting across different employers, sectors and industries. Hence, due to the presence of multiplicity of occupations coupled with regular shifting and seasonal availability of work in the case of home based work, it becomes more difficult to identify the sector/industry for provision of various social security measures.

The traditional approach towards social security in different states is based on a sector wise approach with the employer contribution comprising the bulk of social security fund. However, in the case of these women, their work shifts across sectors and they do not have any set of permanent employers. Therefore, social security based on government responsibility and funds (which they should in turn raise from the capitalists) encompassing all home based workers is the need of the hour. The traditional approach to unionization and collective action by most trade unions is trade and workplace/shopfloor/factory gate oriented so that the task of unionization of home based workers is considered to be that of women’s organizations

• It can (and must!)be argued that minimum wage norms must be applied to these women. Any demand for application of minimum wage norms may bring them in to conflict with their contractor and they may run the risk of losing work, given their lack of bargaining power. • They lack bargaining power and prefer an approach wherein the government, recognizing the precarious nature of their work, provides them with the recognition as workers as well as social security benefits • The more reliable source of support for them can be social security that covers their basic need of food, education, old age pension, some saving through PF, and health insurance • In the given setting, Government will have to find a more area/residence centric approach to identify and provide social security to these workers.