Transcript Haridustehnoloogia uurimissuunad

Learning theories, instructional
design theories and instructional
design models
Kai Pata
Role of metaphors in design
• Characteristic of the development of a new type of
urban car by Honda were slogans and phrases that were
a form of explication of the personal hunches of various
people.
• If the automobile were an organism, how should it
evolve ?
• The phrase described an ideal.
• As team members argued and discussed what this
slogan might mean, they came up with an answer in the
form of yet another slogan : “man-maximum, machineminimum”.
• This captured the team’s belief that the
ideal car should somehow transcend the
traditional human-machine relationship.
Role of metaphors in design
• From considering how automobiles (taken as
living beings) would evolve emerged the
concept of “Tall Boy” (a car that grows
higher without becoming otherwise bigger)
that provided a background for modern
city cars.
Linguist George Lakoff and
philosopher Mark Johnson
“Metaphors We Live By”:
The essence of metaphor is
understanding and
experiencing one kind of
thing in terms of another.
Role of metaphors in design
• Nonaka and Takeuchi (1995) provide examples of the
importance of externalization of tacit
knowledge for innovation in Japanese firms.
• Personal hunches must be convertible to explicit
knowledge and shared with others to be fruitful.
– Tacit (or implicit) knowledge: mental models, experiences,
stories, rituals and skills residing in the individual and
private mind.
– Explicit knowledge: formal models, processes, rules and
procedures which can be communicated externally
Nonaka I. & Takeuchi H., “The
Knowledge-Creating Company”, Oxford
University Press, 1995.
Role of metaphors in design
Role of metaphors in design
Implicit
metaphors of
learning
Discussions
about what
learning is
Instructional
design
theories and
models
Learning
theories
Discussing metaphors and proverbs
of learning
• Learning is…..
• What metaphors have been used for describing
learning theories?
• How are learning metaphors related with
instructional designs?
• Which learning theories are behind your
learning metaphors?
Some metaphors and proverbs
about learning
• Planting flowers -- A seed is
planted in my mind which I nurture
with water and sun in the faith that
it will sprout and grow.
• Being a detective -- It's all about
uncovering the facts, looking for
clues and asking the right questions
until the whole mystery makes
sense.
• A quest -- I'm searching for that
illusive something and every step I
take brings me closer to what I
need to know, but I never get there
... it's a continuous journey.
Estonian proverbs
• Ela õppimise tarvis ja
õpi elamise tarvis.
• Kes õpib, see ka teab.
• Töö õpetab tegijat.
• Töö õpetab iseennast.
• Harjutus teeb meistriks.
• Inimene õpib hällist
kunni hauani.
• Tarkust ei saa kulbiga
päha tõsta.
Learning theories
• Learning theory is the set
learning:
of principles about
– consisting of the descriptions what initiates learning
– how learning process proceeds,
– and what is the result of learning (Driscoll, 1994).
• Learning theories describe the essence of learning and
predict the results of learning.
But…
• Learning theories are general and give few concrete
guidelines how to implement these in certain
situations.
Behavioural learning
“Black box” metaphor
Skinner (1950) introduced behavioural learning theory:
“A science of behavior must eventually deal with
behavior in its relation to certain manipulable
variables.
“Response strenghtening”metaphor
1900-1950 Learning as response strenghtening
Teacher gives
punishment and
rewards, student
reacts with teacher
defined behaviour
Drill, tutorial, assessment test centered learning
Principles of behaviourism
‘conditioning reflex’
Pavlov provided the basis of
behaviourism highlighting the
importance of stimulus for
learning.
Neutral Stimulus (NS) => No
Response (NR)
NS + Unconditioned Stimulus
(UCS) => Unconditioned
Response (UCR)
Conditioned Stimulus (CS) =>
Conditioned Response (CR)
Pavlov dog
Principles of behavioural learning
Skinner, 1950:
1. Behaviour that is positively
reinforced will reoccur;
intermittent reinforcement is
particularly effective
2. Information should be
presented in small amounts so that
responses can be reinforced
("shaping")
3. Reinforcements will generalize
across similar stimuli ("stimulus
generalization") producing
secondary conditioning
Skinner box
General educational implications of
behaviorism
Emphasis on behavior: students should be active
respondents…
…people are most likely to learn when they actually
have a chance to behave.
Student learning must be evaluated…
…only measurable behaviour changes can confirm
that learning has taken place.
Drill and practice
• Repetition of stimulus-response habits strengthens those
habits.
• …Promotes the acquisition of knowledge or skill through
repetitive practice.
• …Refers to small tasks such as the memorization of spelling or
vocabulary words, or the practicing of arithmetic facts and may
also be found in more complex learning tasks or physical
education games and sports.
• …Involves repetition of specific skills.
• To be meaningful to learners, the skills built through drill-andpractice should become the building blocks for more meaningful
learning.
• Drills are usually repetitive and are used as a reinforcement tool.
Advantages of drill programs
• personalized
• help learners master
materials at their own pace
• mainly for the beginning
learner
• for students who are
experiencing learning
problems
• interactive nature
DRILL program ABC
• recognition of the type of
skill being developed
• use of appropriate
strategies to develop
competencies
• use of games to increase
motivation
• provide feedback to
students
Drill programs
New task
Results: solved/correct
Show answer!
3 x Show answer => new problem
Check answer!
• Chemistry equations
Drill programs
•Math 1
•Math 2
Choose activity and numbers
Timer
Check answer
correct/wrong answers
Interactivity
Competition
Feedback
Drill programs
Check answer
Language learning
Choose topic
Feedback
Test
Drill programs
Music
Sounds -feedback
from program
Drill programs
Find correct!
Feedback
Game elements
Punishing system
Trials and error method
Phases: drilling
and testing
knowledge
Biology
Behavioural elements in computer
games
• System of tokens in computergames serves
as the rewarding element.
• Rewards and tokens are the source of
extrincic motivation.
• When behaviour is conditioned with tokens
the behaviour itself becomes pleasant and
can turn into the source of intrincic
motivation to play the game.
Behavioural elements in computer games
Warrock
Gaining
experience
to proceed
in levels
Gaining
points to
earn money
to buy new
weapons
Behavioural elements in computer games
www.honoloko.com
Decisions give
resourse- or
environment
points and you
can make the
environment
better.
When your
health points
decrease you can
see that the
environmental
conditions get
worse.
Player types
• Agressive – can do anything to win
• Ambicious/calculating – is always motivated by
victory
• Kamikaze – does all he can to sabotage the winning
chances
• Cautious – takes minimum risks …
Manin et al. 2006
• What other types could you identify related with
tokens and rewards in games that are related with
behavioural learning ideas?
Cognitive learning
“Information processing” metaphor
1960-1970 learning as information processing
(Mayer,1996).
Teacher is transmissing
knowledge, students are
receivers of knowledge
Textbooks and other content management systems.
“Knowledge acquisition” metaphor
Anna Sfard 1998
• According to the “knowledge-acquisition” metaphor
learning is the construction of well-organised knowledge
structures that provide students with the means of
interacting with the important aspects of the problem
situations.
• Acquiring scientific knowledge takes place through
conceptual change where intuitive knowledge is
replaced/modified with scientifically correct knowledge.
• “Knowledge acquisition” metaphor
is based on the idea that our brain
is a container
and the learning process is filling
this container (Bereiter, 2002).
“Brain as the computer” metaphor
Computer has information inputs and action outputs
similarly as we receive signals from the environment
with our sensory organs and react with behavours that
emerge in response to the outside signals
Information is recorded, decoded and processed both
inside the computer and the brain, this processing
provides the output behaviours. information
reaction
Model of cognitive architecture
“Dual-coding” theory
• Paivio (1986) "Human
cognition is unique in that it
has become specialized for
dealing simultaneously with
language and with nonverbal
objects and events.
A dual coding
theory of
learning from
visual and
verbal materials.
(Mayer, 1993)
“Cognitive load” theory
• Provides guidelines to assist in the presentation of
information in such a way that helps learners to
optimize their intellectual performance.
• Is based on the assumptions of:
– an effectively unlimited longterm memory and
– a limited working memory
(e.g., Baddeley, 1986),
• Aims at designing
instructions that do
not overburden the
learners’ cognitive
capabilities.
Applications of “information
processing” metaphor
• http://mudelid.5dvision.ee/
Constructivist learning
“Knowledge construction” metaphor
1980-1990 learning as knowledge construction
(Mayer,1996).
guided inquiry
discussions
Student is constructing knowledge on the
basis of earlier knowledge in real situations,
teacher is guiding the learning process
Steven Weinberg “free-floating”
metaphor
Constructivism has been illustrated by using the “free floating”
metaphor that emphasises that the rules to construct individual
knowledge as well as the paths of learning are unpredictable in
advance.
The “free-floating” idea
has recently been used in elearning
to describe the knowledgemanagement: “this is the
beast that is combining
the e-learning practices with the free-floating knowledge created and
shared by learning organisations during their activities (Barron, 2000)”
“Discovery” metaphor
• Discovery learning
is based on the "Aha!“
method.
• Dewey wrote: "There is an intimate and necessary
relation between the processes of actual experience
and education".
• Bruner believed that students learn best by discovery
and that the learner is a problem solver who interacts
with the environment testing hypotheses and
developing generalizations.
“Experiental learning” metaphor
• The foundation of learning is experience.
• Learning is the transformation of our experiences
into knowledge, skills, attitudes, values
• Reflection
helps to transform
the experiences.
(Kolb)
“Inquiry” metaphor
Co-lab
“Anchoring” metaphor
• Anchored instruction is a major paradigm for
technology-based learning that has been
developed by the Cognition & Technology Group
at Vanderbilt (CTGV) under the leadership of John
Bransford.
KNOWLEDGE
• Learning and teaching activities should be
designed around an 'anchor' which
should be some sort of case-study
or problem situation.
Adventures of Jasper Woodbury
http://peabody.vanderbilt.edu/projects/funded/jasper/preview/AdvJW.ht
ml
Rock Cycle game
Software
http://edu.technion.ac.il/Faculty/Faculty.asp?FM=Yaelk
Inquiry learning applications
http://bio.edu.ee/
BGUILE http://www.letus.org/bguile/
“Young Scientist”
http://bio.edu.ee/noor/
Lake Illuka
http://www.emlab.uow.edu.au/
Home water-usage simulaator
Nardoo
river
Investigating
highly
polluted river
Algae simulator
http://learningteam.org/htmls/nardoo.html
PDA for taking water-proofs
Constructivist learning systems
• Concept-mapping elements
Joint construction
Gliffy http://gliffy.com/
• Brainstorming tools
Belvedere http://lilt.ics.hawaii.edu/belvedere/
Social-constructivist learning
Roots for “knowledge building” metaphor
by Scardamalia and Bereiter (1994)
• Popper (1972) has emphasized that in addition to
physical and material reality (World 1) and the
reality that concerns mental states (World 2), there
is a third realm (World 3), which includes
conceptual entities such as theories and
ideas.
• World 3 is especially important for human beings
because they do not operate only in the physical
and mental realms, but also understand and
develop objects belonging to the third realm.
World 3 is dependent on World 2 and World 1, but
it is nevertheless rather autonomous.
“Knowledge building” metaphor
Scardamalia and Bereiter (1994)
• Knowledge building refers to collective work for
the advancement and elaboration of conceptual
artifacts (product plans, business strategies,
marketing plans, theories, ideas, and models) (the
world of cultural knowledge).
• An important aspect of Bereiter’s theory is to
make a conceptual distinction between learning,
which operates in the realm of mental states
(Popper’s World 2), and knowledge building,
which operates in the realm of theories and
ideas (Popper’s World 3).
Knowledge Forum (KF, see www.learn.motion.com)
CSILE environment
Environment
for knowledge
building in
communities
“Negotiations” metaphor
Since 1990…
The social-constructive learning has been illustrated with
the “negotiations” metaphor (Mayer,1996).
According to this metaphor
knowledge is always built
in the dialogue where the actors
create shared knowledge of each
others’knowledge, that enables
shared activity and supports
individual knowledge creation.
Community role in learning
• The development of content alone does not lead to
more effective learning and there is the need to
structure and foster learning environments to enable
communities to develop.
• Learning happens through mediating artefacts
within a framework of activity within a wider
socio-cultural context of the rules of the
community.
“Participation” metaphor
• Social-constructivist learning has been illustrated
with the participation metaphor (Sfard, 1998) that
suggests that all learners are part of communities
of practice that have certain common knowledge
and skills (Lave ja Wenger).
• Learning in the communities of practice is directed
from the older members of the
community towards the new
members who as a result of
learning move from the
peripherial areas of the system
towards the core of the
community and become themselves
the experts who can transfer the
community practice.
“Communities of Practice”
Raub, S. (2002). Communities of Practice: A New Challenge for Human
Resources Management, Research and Practice in Human Resource
Management, 10(2), 16-35.
Knowledge creation in organisations
Nonaka and Takeuchi (1995)
Collaborative
learning
environment
s
Fle3 DEMO http://fle3.uiah.fi/demo/
demo/demo
Synergy DEMO
http://bscl.fit.fraunhofer.de/pub2/bscl.cgi/0/4
WISE
Collaborative
inquiry
learning
environment
kai pata2
tihane
http://wise.berkeley.edu
Knowledge is “embedded in
practices”
Engeström, 1999
• Human beings do not live in a vacuum but are embedded
in their sociocultural context, and that their behavior
cannot be understood independently of that context.
• Human activity is mediated through the conceptual
and material cultural artifacts people use.
• The participants focus on reconceptualizing their own
activity system in relation to their shared objects of
activity, both the objects and the existing scripts are
reconceptualized; the activity system is transformed; and
new motives and objects for the activity system are
created.
• Knowledge is always embedded in practices, in
contrast to the mentalistic tradition of “knowledge in the
head”.
Processes within an activity
Cole & Engeström, 1993
Cultural Historical Activity Theory
• In its ideal form Engeström’s model of expansive learning
in work teams is based on a learning cycle with seven
stages:
– individual participants question and criticize certain existing
practices.
– they analyze the situation; that is, they analyze the historical
causes and empirical inner relations of the activity system in
question.
– the participants engage in modeling a new solution to the
problematic situation.
– they examine the new model by experimenting to determine
whether it works and what potentialities and limitations it has.
– they implement the new model to explore practical action and
applications.
– they reflect on and evaluate the process.
– they engage in consolidating the new practice in its new form.
“Rhizomic” metaphor
• Rhizomic metaphor describes the endless connections in the
structure of knowledge, culture, language, and thinking that
is common to social-constructivist learning.
• Differently from the roots of the
tree that serve as the controlling
spot for the whole tree, the
rhizome has many
connection-points, it has no
starting- or endingpoint, it is an
intermediate being, always in
between two spots, describing
the alliance, the connection with
the idea: ..more..and more..and more…
Gilles Deleuze and Felix Guattari: "Rhizome" (1976), “A Thousand Plateaus” (1980)
Principles of social-constructivist
learning environment
• Learners build their own mental structures by
interacting with the real environment.
• Learners have access to resources and expertise and
they can sequence the learning activity according to
their own needs.
• This enables to develop more engaging and studentcentered, active and authentic learning environments.
• Toolkits and other support systems guide and inform
users through a process of activities.
(Duffy and Jonassen)
Principles of social-constructivist
learning environments
• Learning takes place in communication acts where
the information is transmissed, processed,
recombinated, contrasted in problem-solving
situations.
• The cognition is always distributed, this leads to
the construction of shared knowledge between
individuals and the surrounded information-rich
environment of resources and relationships.
“Ubiquitous learning” metaphor
Mobile learning has
ubiquitous ("anytime,
anywhere“) nature.
Ubiquity is the ability to be present everywhere or at
several places at once. The term is derived from Latin
ubique which means everywhere.
Wikipedia
Possibilities for ubiquitous learning
Possibilities for ubiquitous learning
(Patten et al., 2006)
Possibilities for ubiquitous learning
(Patten et al., 2006)
“Innovative learning”
• Innovative learning and knowledge advancement are
characterized as cyclical and iterative processes, which
have several implications.
• Knowledge creation often requires sustained periods of
time and is not correctly described by traditional narratives
of heroic individuals making ingenious discoveries through
sudden moments of insight.
• Moreover, knowledge creation is not linear (Engeström,
1987) but a process of ambiguity and “creative
chaos” (Nonaka & Takeuchi, 1995), involving the sense of
progress.
• Knowledge creation does not start from scratch but is a
process of transforming and developing— sometimes
in a radical way— existing ideas and practices.
Hakkarainen et al., 2004
What learning theories are behind
your metaphors?
• Learning is…..
• Rethinking, which learning theories are
behind your metaphors?
Task 1
• Which metaphors are behind these learning
environments? Explain and illustrate with arguments!
– FLE3 http://fle3.uiah.fi/demo/
–
–
–
–
Honoloko www.honoloko.com
“Young Scientist” http://bio.edu.ee/noor
Miksike LEFO http://lefo.net/
Belvedere http://lilt.ics.hawaii.edu/belvedere/
• Discussion and comparison of arguments.
Complexity of thinking operations
Complex skills and
intergrated knowledge
Basic skills
knowledge
Social-constructivist learning
Cases and problems
shared knoweledge
construction and expertise
inquiry and decision-making
Cognitive learning
e-content,
drill program or tutorial
assesment test
Behavioural learning
conditioning
transmissing
Teaching paradigm
constructing
Instructional-design theories
• In his book Instructional-design theories and
models: A new paradigm of Instructional
Theory (1999), C. Reigeluth conceptualizes the
meaning of Instructional-Design Theory as the
design-oriented approach towards
teaching, which focuses on the means of
attaining given goals for learning or
development by offering explicit guidance on
how to better help people to learn and develop.
Instructional-design theories
• Snelbecker (1999) has assumed that it is important, both
conceptually and practically, that the instructionaldesign theory was the primary interest of the study,
rather than instructional methods were designed as byproduct of the theory construction obtained from other
scientists.
• This increases the likelihood that the important
aspects of the instruction have been focused in
formulating ideas, rather than on trying to force
instructional processes and outcomes to fit a theory from
some other area.
Instructional-design theories
• While the definition of Instructional-Design Theory by
Reigeluth (1999) is ‘decision-oriented’ by nature, the
‘conclusion-oriented’ aspects of the design research have
been emphasised by several authors (Cobb, 2001; Edelson,
2002; Sweller, 2004).
• Cobb (2001) focuses on the role of design as a strategy
for testing theories in educational research.
• The strength of theories developed through design research
originates from their explanatory power and their
grounding in specific experiences (Cobb, 2001).
• Discovering that some instructional designs are
superior to others can also provide insights into
human cognitive architecture that may otherwise be
difficult to achieve (Sweller, 2004).
Edelson (2000) design research
paradigm
• The design research paradigm is a strategy for
developing and refining three types of
theories:
– ‘domain theories’ that characterise the challenges and
opportunities in specific teaching and learning context,
describe the models how pupils learn in this context and
the desired outcomes of learning;
– ‘design frameworks’ that provide knowledge of the
properties of successful design solution; and
– ‘design methodologies’ which provide guidelines for
successful design procedure.
Aims of the instructional design
research
• Cronbach and Suppes (1969) distinguish between
two types of inquiry:
– ‘conclusion-oriented’ that describes the reality and
– ‘decision-oriented’ that aims to change the reality.
• First type guides the theorists (e.g. researchers) who
identify and give meaning to the cause-and-effect
mechanisms or flows of events in the learning
domain.
• The latter type is common to the practitioners (e.g.
teachers) who need to develop applications that
consider these theories and principles in various
teaching situations.
Aims of the instructional design
research
DOMAIN
THEORY
IN
N
RI
V
I
AT
AT
I
N
LU
G
A
DE
G
DESIGN
FRAMEWORK
TI
A
D
EV
TO
• The research related to the ‘decision- and
conclusion-oriented’ instructional designs
follow the opposite sequences
IMPLEMENTING TO
LEARNING
PRACTISE
OM
C
AC
M
NG
LEARNING
PRACTISE
EV
O
DOMAIN
THEORY
W
IT
H
MODIFYING
AL
UA
TI
NG
DESIGN
FRAMEWORK
‘Conclusion-oriented’ instructional
design
• Cobb (2001) has introduced the four-step strategy
for testing theories that:
– starts from the development of the theory,
– continues with the derivation of the design principles
from the theory and
– translating these into concrete designs and
– ending with the evaluation of the designs in relation to
the theory.
’Decision-oriented’ instructional
design research
• The process of instructional-design aims to
develop better practises for increasing
certain outcomes of learning.
• By Reigeluth (1999), any instructional-design
theory identifies methods of instruction up to the
detailed components, providing educators with the
means how to effectively support and facilitate
learning in certain situations.
’Decision-oriented’ instructional
design research
• The development of instructional-design
framework is a continuous process of testing
various methods, explaining the results of testing
in the light of theory and, if necessary,
complementing the methods on the basis of
findings and theoretical interpretations (Reigeluth,
1999).
• Following the main ideas brought out by
Reigeluth (1999), any instructional-design
framework has to provide guidance on the
following points:
’Decision-oriented’ instructional
design research
• Identifying the circumstances under which learning has
to take place.
• Identifying the desired outcomes of learning.
• Identifying the sound theoretical background for
instructional-designs under certain circumstances.
• Identifying the best theory driven instructional-design
methods for scaffolding the learning process.
• Identifying appropriate learning-tools for applying
certain instructional-design methods and scaffolding.
• Identifying the group of learners to whom the
instructional design methods are applicable effectively.
Iterative nature of instructional
design research
• Edelson (2002) has suggested that from the aspect of
theory construction, the practical process of applying a
theory to construct a design naturally exposes
inconsistencies in theory and is more effective than
analytical research.
• The important characteristic of design research is that it
is not sequential but iterative movement between
the states of problem analysis and design solution during
which the boundary between ‘decision-oriented’ design
and the ‘conclusion-oriented’ research will be eliminated.
Instructional design models
• Instructional design models may be defined as the
visualized representations of an instructional design process,
showing the main elements or phases, and their
relationships.
• The selection of instructional design model depends of the
selection of the learning theory:
Jonassen points out that the difference:
*behavioral or cognitive instructional designs have a
predetermined outcome and intervene in the learning process to
map a pre-determined concept of reality into the learner's mind
*constructivist learning outcomes are not always predictable,
instruction should foster, not control, learning
Instructional design models
• Behavioural and linear design models are:
– ADDIE is a general purpose model, most useful for
creating instructional products, but also applicable for
program design.
– Dick & Carey model exemplifies the systematic approach
to curriculum and program design.
– Kemp's model is most useful for large-scale programs
involving groups of people and multiple resources.
• Social constructivist design models are spiral
– R2D2 involves the participants into spiral design
Instructional design models
• Behaviorism and cognitivism both support the practice of
analyzing a task and breaking it down into manageable
chunks, establishing objectives, and measuring
performance based on those objectives.
• Constructivism, on the other hand, promotes a more openended learning experience where the methods and results
of learning are not easily measured and may not be the
same for each learner.
The systems approach developed out of the 1950s and 1960s
focus on language laboratories, teaching machines,
programmed instruction, multimedia presentations and the
use of the computer in instruction.
ADDIE
The principal example of Instructional Systems Design is
represented by the ADDIE model.
Dick and Carey model
• The Dick and Carey model prescribes a
methodology for designing instruction by
breaking it down into smaller components.
• Instruction is specifically targeted on the
skills and knowledge to be taught and
supplies the appropriate conditions for the
learning of these outcomes.
Kemp Instructional Design Plan
Kemp Instructional Design Plan
• The oval shape of the model (as depicted in the "original"
diagram) gives the designer the sense that the design and
development process is a continuous cycle
– Identify instructional problems, and specify goals for designing an
instructional program.
– Examine learner characteristics that should receieve attention during
planning.
– Identify subject content, and analyze task components related to stated goals
and purposes.
– State instructional objectives for the learner.
– Sequence content within each instructional unit for logical learning
– Design instructional strategies so that each learner can master the objectives.
– Plan the instructional message and delivery.
– Develop evaluation instruments to assess objectives.
– Select resources to support instruction and learning activities.
Kemp Instructional Design Plan
• Revision encircles all nine elements of model.
• The two outer ovals illustrate the feedback
geature, which allows the designer to make
changes in the content or treatment of elements at
any time during the development cycle.
• The idea is to improve any weak parts of the
program as they are discovered to better insure
learners will be able to accomplish the
instructional objectives at a satisfactory level.
The Recursive, Reflective Design
and Development (R2D2) model
• was introduced in a journal article by Willis in
1995.
• R2D2 has four overarching principles: (1)
recursion, (2) reflection, (3) non-linearity, and (4)
participatory design.
– makes the design process a spiral
– emphasizes the need for the designer to thoughtfully seek and
consider feedback and ideas from many sources
– suggests a set of focal points that need not be approached in any
particular predetermined order
– users should be involved extensively in all phases of the design
and development process
Objective-Rational Instructional
Design (ID) Model
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
The process is sequential and linear
Planning is top down and "systematic"
Objectives guide development
Experts, who have special knowledge, are
considered critical and central to ID work
Careful sequencing and the teaching of subskills
are important
The goal is delivery of preselected knowledge
Summative evaluation is critical
Objective data are critical
Willis (1995)
Implications of constructivism
for instructional design
• D. Jonassen lists the following implications of
constructivism for instructional design:
– "...purposeful knowledge construction may be facilitated by learning
environments which:
– Provide multiple representations of reality - avoid oversimplification of
instruction by by representing the natural complexity of the world
– Present authentic tasks - contextualize
– Provide real-world, case-based learning environments, rather than predetermined instructional sequences
– Foster reflective practice
– Enable context- and content-dependent knowledge construction
– Support collaborative construction of knowledge through social
negotiation, not competition among learners for recognition
Linking learning theories with
instructional design
• Oliver´s framework:
– Individual – Where the individual is the focus of learning.
– Social – learning is explained through interaction with others
(such as a tutor or fellow students), through discourse and
collaboration and the wider social context within which the
learning takes place.
– Reflection – Where conscious reflection on experience is the
basis by which experience is transformed into learning.
– Non-reflection – Where learning is explained with reference to
processes such as conditioning, preconscious learning, skills
learning and memorisation (Jarvis, Holford, & Griffin, 1998).
– Information – Where an external body of information such as
text, artefacts and bodies of knowledge form the basis of
experience and the raw material for learning.
– Experience – Where learning arises through direct experience,
activity and practical application.
Linking learning theories with
instructional design
Oliver´s framework:
The representation
emphasises the relationships
between
the ends of the spectrum in
the form of an octahedron:
• Individual – Social.
• Reflection – Non-reflection.
• Information – Experience.
The representation is useful
in terms of helping to
identify learning pathways
Learning activities in
instructional design
Task 2
• Form a list of activities what were present
in one of your investigated learing system
• Evaluate activities with the instructional
design model in the 3 dimensions:
– Individual – Social
– Reflection – Non-reflection
– Information – Experience
• Decide what learning theories might be supported
by this learning environment
• Compare the results of your previous arguments
from Task 1.