Transcript Aging and Educational Gerontology

American
Association of
Adult and
Continuing
Education
2007 Conference
Norfolk, VA
James Brown, M.S.
School of Education
[email protected]
Aging and
Educational
Gerontology
A Short Historical and
Theoretical Perspective
Why Study Aging?
A Demographic Shift
• Life expectancy:
– 1900 = age 47
– 2000 = age 77
• Those age 85 and older are the fastest growing
segment of the population
• Over half the people over age 65 are alive now
(Moody, 2006)
Gerontology
Gerontologists
• Study the aging process
• Usually operates from a
deficit or loss model
• Often involves medical or
health-related phenomena
• Might not involve specific
education beyond medical or
health-related needs of older
adult population
Educational Gerontologists
• Educational gerontologists look at
educational issues related to aging
• Three areas of practice:
– Education for persons middle-aged or
older;
– Education for a general of specific public
about aging and older people;
– Educational preparation of persons who
are working or intend to be employed in
serving older people in professional or
paraprofessional capacities.
Peterson, 1976
Early Views of Aging
Stages of Aging in Early History
• Universal: infancy to old age
• Socrates: Riddle of the Sphinx
(Oedipus Rex, 428 B.C.)
Riddle of the Sphinx
(Oedipus Rex, 428 B.C.)
Answer: “Man”
Infancy = 4 legs
Adulthood = 2 legs
Old age = 3 legs
Stages of Aging in Early History
• Hippocrates (370 B.C.)
Four seasons and “humours”
– Autumn (black bile)
– Spring (blood)
– Winter (phlegm)
– Summer (yellow bile)
Stages of Aging in Early History
• Christians of the Middle Ages
journey of pilgrims had no stages
• Post-Shakespeare staircase of life
– Middle of stairs was highest point in
life
Later Historical Views of
Aging
• 1700s - childhood separated
from adulthood
• 20th century - older age
associated with retirement
• Today = three ages
– Young-old (64-74)
– Old-old (75-84)
– Oldest-old (85+)
A Modern View of Aging
Today’s older adults
• Live longer, healthier, better
educated, and more active (AARP,
2002)
• Five determinants for aging:
– Health
• Physical and social environment
– Heredity (biological)
– Individual behaviors
– National productivity
– Wealth
(Beckingham & Watt, 1995)
Ageism and Theories
Ageism
• “A systematic stereotyping and
pervasive negative view of older
persons” (Moody, 2006)
• Ignores potential for experience and
learning
• Theory of Disengagement (Cumming,
Dean, Newell, & McCaffrey, 1960)
• Continuity Theory (Atchley, 1989)
• Modernization Theory (Cockerham,
1997)
Theory of Disengagement
(Cumming, Dean, Newell, &
McCaffrey, 1960)
• Possibly the basis for much of
ageism in Western cultures
• Posits that there is a mutually
agreed-upon separation between
aging persons and society
• Rose (1964) describes the separation
process as “the gradual and
inevitable withering of a leaf or a
fruit long before frost totally kills it.”
Continuity Theory
(Atchley, 1989)
• Older adults apply adaptive
strategies to maintain continuity
• Goal is to keep self-esteem and selfidentity
• Once this is threatened, there is no
more change and they insulate their
beliefs and selves from the
environment
Modernization Theory
(Cockerham, 1997)
• This theory posits that the status of
older adults valued in society is
inversely related to the state of
technology of society
• For example, older adults were more
valued in America’s agricultural age
than in the current information age
• Moody (2006) finds no correlation
between periods of history and
treatment of older population
A New Definition and
Paradigm
• World Health Organization (WHO,
2002) defines old age health:
– “mental, physical, social
well-being, not merely the
absence of disease or
infirmity.”
– Signals a paradigm shift
on aging as adults live
and adapt to problems of
disease but remain active
Theoretical Roots of
Educational Gerontology
Educational Gerontology
• Howard McClusky (1970), University
of Michigan’s Graduate School of
Education
• Three areas of research and
practice:
– Endeavors designed for older adults;
– Endeavors for those concerned with
older adults;
– Educational preparation and training
for those working in professional jobs.
Theory of Margin
(1963)
• Margin =
f (load / power)
– Power = abilities, resources,
and allies to handle tasks
– Goal: gain more margin to do
tasks that are rewarding by
gaining more power and
knowledge over them
Andragogy (1968)
• Framework originally distinguishing
pedagogy (childhood learning)
from adult learning (andragogy)
• Popularized by Malcolm Knowles
(1968)
Andragogy (1968)
• Adults
– Prefer self-direction;
– Bring rich life experiences
as resources to learning;
– Want to learn relevant
tasks;
– Want learning to apply to
immediate needs;
– Are motivated internally,
rather than externally.
Categories of Need
• McClusky (1971) lists five
categories:
– Coping (basic)
– Expressive (internal)
– Contributive (serving)
– Influence (power)
– Transcendental (wisdom
and beyond limitations)
• “Education can be a major
force for achievement of
this outcome”
Societal Attitudes Toward
Aging and Education (1976)
• H. R. Moody (1976), sees four “modal
patterns” of society toward aging:
– Rejection
– Social services
– Participation
– Self-actualization
• Education can make available “the
great ideas of the humanities and
social sciences that can nourish this
psychological development in old
age”
Communicating Results
Educational Gerontology
• Journal published ten times
annually
• Ranked by Institute of
Scientific Information
Journal Citations (2004) as
– 21st of 24 on gerontology
– 76th of 91 on education and
education research
– Contains 26 educational
arenas for special interests
and many conferences to
support them
Association for
Gerontology in Higher
Education (AGHE)
• Created by the Gerontology Society
of America (GSA)
• Split from the GSA in 1972 as its own
association
• Rejoined the GSA in 1998 as the
practice of educational gerontology
began to merge with other interests
in general gerontology
Illustrative Programming for
Older Adults
Adults Want to Learn
– Adults over the age of 70
spend an average of over 300
hours annually engaged in
learning activities
(Hiemstra, 1975)
Elderhostel (1974)
• Has 8,000 programs in 90
countries
• Programs tend to be explorative
and include intergenerational, as
well as travel, outdoor, and service
programs
• Approximately 170,000 adults age
55 or over participated in 2004
• Can have hefty price tags
Learning in Retirement (LIR, 1998)
• A formal program “predicated on the
principle that adult learners are
capable of developing, designing, and
delivering high quality instructional
programs” (Redding, Eisenman,
Rugolo, 1998)
• Ages of participants vary from 55 to
90
• Seniors do it all
• Topics include music, arts, literature,
political and social issues, retirement,
health, etc.
• Completed funded, run, and
curriculum designed by its members
• 150 institutes in America and Canada
Gerontagogy
• Lemieux and Martinez (2000) suggest the
term Gerontagogy to name the “new
corpus of knowledge” that will define this
new discipline
• They look at a program of social, cultural,
and educational elements and is aimed at
the acquisition of Wisdom.
Wisdom
• Wisdom would be reflexive knowledge,
something like a critical review, in order to
obtain better management of his or her
personal and social life.
• Teachers must be trained to use the
Socratic method to coax out this type of
wisdom.
• And so, conclude the authors:
“The Fruit of Sapiential
Knowledge” (Lemieux &
Martinez, 2000)
• The University rediscovers the
connection between philosophy,
theology, and the sciences that existed
in the Renaissance
• This would be a University of Wisdom.
Four Recommendations for
Future Trends
Recruit Faculty of the Third Age
Define a New Curriculum
Use a More Age-Relevant
Framework
Policies to Support New
Educational Policy
• “The most impressive characteristic of
policy as it exists for older adult education
is that there is so little of it and that it has
had such limited impact.”
(Peterson & Masunaga, 1998)
Policies to Support New
Educational Policy
• Implementation of Lifelong Learning Act
(1976)
• Increase level of diversity for those who
participate
• Fund organizations whose primary purpose is
to offer educational opportunities to older
adults, rather than add-ons to existing
programs
(Peterson & Masunaga, 1998)
Policies to Support New
Educational Policy
• Fund, implement, and evaluate programs for
older adults to assure content is actually
transferred
• Use for-profit institutions as well as
educational institutions in the organizational
mix
Policies to Support New
Educational Policy
• Set quality of standards for training of
instructors, faculty, and staff to support
educational programs
• Obtain federal support for all stages of
programming in alternative and adult
education, especially where it impacts
survival, assistance, and productivity of adult
learners
(Peterson & Masunaga, 1998)
Older Adults
and Computer
Technology
Seniors Want to Learn
Computer Skills
• Substantial evidence exists that seniors want to learn
computer technology, that they seek computer
training to do so, and that they can be very
successful at it, if the program adjusts to
accommodate the biopychosocial aspects of the
aging process.
(e.g., see articles in AARP, SeniorNet, ThirdAge;
among many studies are Jones & Bayen, 1998;
Morrell, 2002 ;Mayhorn et al., 2004)
Ageism—The Old View
• Ageism is defined as “a systematic stereotyping and
pervasive view of older persons” (Palmore, 2001)
• Remains a predominant view of American Society (Purdie
& Boulton-Lewis, 2003)
• But this view is beginning to change …
Beyond Ageism
• Aging is now seen in Western cultures as “an essential
and natural part of the cycle of life—a period in which
people continue to learn and pass on knowledge to
others” (Tomporowski, 2003)
• Aging means a “continual process of problem solving and
discovery of knowledge derived from living” (Chaffin &
Harlow, 2005)
• Aging involves an active lifestyle and contributions to
family and society throughout life (Purdie & BoultonLewis, 2003)
Psychosocial
Reasons for
Avoiding Computer
Technology
Avoid
Avoid
Technology
computers
centers
Extreme
Caution Computers
“Too Old
Learning
Aren’t
To Learn”
Computer Relevant
skills
“I’ll
Negative
Break
Remarks
The
About
Computers Computer”
Namlu (2003) lists
typical computer
anxiety behaviors …
The Right Culture for
Teaching and Learning with
the Elderly
Environmental
Biological
Psychosocial
Adapted from
Whitbourne (2005)
Chaffin-Harlow Model of
Cognitive Learning
Test
Art, Culture
&
Technology
Create
New Ideas
Determine
Type of
Education
Find
Faults
Relate to
World
Initiate
Cognitive
Learning
Meet the
Challenge
Enlarge
Sense of
Self
Teach
Learn
Identify
Barriers
to
Learning
(Chaffin & Harlow, 2005)
Integrating New Perspectives
With Old
Art
(Wright, 2000;
Morrell et al.,
2002 Chaffin &
Harlow, 2005)
Art is a bridge
across the
generations;
sharing one’s
songs,
stories, and
music is a
way to
connect.
Culture
No longer
bound by four
walls, older
adults can
move from a
culture of social
isolation to one
of communication.
Technology
The digital
divide:
Knowing
how to use
computers
makes a
difference
in older
adult lives.
Three Levels of Learning
Survival
Tasks make
no sense and
are beyond
grasp. Much
emotional and
instructional
support
needed.
Adjustment
Learner gains in
confidence and
can follow most
directions. Still
looking for the
one right way to
do the task.
Discovery
Skill and comfort
level approach
mastery.
Learners now
own the process
and explore to
meet their own
needs.
Finding “Faults”
Rowe, 1995; Chaffin & Harlow, 2005
Cognitive
changes
Social
isolation
Seating
Health
Lighting
Operating
Computer
Fixing “Faults”
Make materials
Easy to read
Set up
Environment
Low-glare
monitors
Identify
Problems
Roller ball
In place of
Mouse
Use
metaphors to
explain
Use Appropriate Type
of Educational Methods
Plan for
success
Practice drills
At slower
pace
Relate new to old Stepwis
e
experiences
Text
with
Pictures
Provide small
Amounts of
information
Provide
Personal
attention
Learn to Deal With
The Real Barriers
Attitudes
Bad or
Confused
Cognitive
Problems
Stroke
Depression Slower
Diabetes
Homebound Speed;
Heart
Memory
Isolated
Problems
Wheelchairs
Walkers
Oxygen
Teachers working with
older adults
encounter many
barriers to learning…
Impaired
Vision
Purdie & Boulton-Lewis, 2003
Make Teaching
Accommodations
Form
Focus
Groups
Use
Computer’s
Toolbox
Use
Identify
Parallels
Frequent
Favorite
To Ease
Breaks
Topics
Learning
Large Print
Monitors
Lots of
Seats
Praise
Keyboards
Careful planning and
listening can lead to
accommodations that
overcome barriers …
Jones & Bayen (1998)
Gay
Boomers
Become
Elders
Generations Now
“On Stage”
• Silents (1925-1942)
• Boomers (1943-1960)
• 13ers (1961-1981)
– Includes Generation X
• Millennials (1982-2005)
– Includes Generation Y
(Strauss & Howe, 1991)
Life Phases
•
•
•
•
•
Life Phase
Youth (age 0-21)
Young Adult (age 22-43)
Midlife (age 44-65)
Elderhood (age 66-87)
Late elderhood (age 88-109)
Central Role
dependence
activity
leadership
stewardship
life review
Boomers
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Dr. Spock; Woodstock; Vietnam
AIDS; Smoking; Cancer
Close to mothers, distant to fathers
Quest for self- Zen
Foster crisis rather than solutions
Avoid military service
Want explicit and increasing authority
Defend conservative values
Destined to be wise elders
13ers
• Generation of “leftovers” from Boomers
• HIV; Three Mile Island; 9/11; ??
• Single parent homes; abortions
• Prefer military service
• Labeled as “lost” and “ruined”
• Fast-learners, pragmatic
• Survivors
• Destined to be tough elders
Millennials
• Planned-for and protected children
• TV; Cell phones; Computers; Drugs
• Home study; Rising academics
• Needed for the new military
• Likely to be good warriors
• Civic leaders
• Build and re-structure society
• Destined to be moral elders
Overview: Boomers Retiring
•
AARP’s (1998) “Segmentation Analysis” of Boomers approaching
retirement found five types:
– Strugglers (9%)
•
No retirement savings; cannot stop working
– Anxious (23%)
•
Worried about health care; must work some
– Enthusiasts (13%)
•
Can’t wait to retire; will not work at all
– Self Reliants (30%)
•
Retirement secure; will work for enjoyment
– Traditionalists (25%)
•
Confident in Social Security and Medicare; volunteers
LGBT Elder
Population
• LGBT = Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual,
and Transgender
• Estimated 3 to 8% of U. S.
population
• 72 million baby boomers
– In 2030, 1 in 5 Americans will
be over the age of 65
– This means 2 to 6 million LGBT
elders in this cohort
LGBT Elder
Population
•
•
LGBT elders are among the most invisible demographic
in America
– Not counted in U.S. Census or federal forms
• In 1990, same-sex couples counted in Census
– Views not reflected in U.S. policy or programs
– Result: underserved & understudied population
LGBT elders face two pervasive barriers which lead to
widespread discrimination
– Ageism
– Heterosexism
Ageism
• “Ageism is the devaluing of, exclusion of, or
discrimination against people because of their age.”
(Cahill et al., 1999)
• More than just an attitude, it involves organizational
structure
– Internalized ageism is exhibited by gay men, who
often experience themselves as old at age 30
Heterosexism
•
•
“An ideological system that
denies, denigrates and
stigmatizes any non-heterosexual
form of behavior, identity,
relationship, or community.”
(Herek, G. M., 1992)
• Note the inclusiveness of
this definition
A fundamental part of life
expectancies of most LGBT people
• Still true in spite of many
advances made during 30
years of activism
(Stonewall, 1969, was
beginning)
Heterosexism in
America
• Anti-gay attitudes
predominate the elderly
– 52% of elders age 6572; 41% of elders age 73
or over were homophobic
in a survey of 99 elderly,
using the Index of
Homophobia (Garrett,
1994)
Heterosexism in
America
•
•
Fear of discrimination can lead to
Social isolation, increased self-neglect, decreased
quality of life, and increased mortality; this is an
especially high risk for transgender persons
Transphobia
“Devaluing of, exclusion of, or discrimination
against people on the basis of perception of them
as gender variant.” (Green, 1994)
LGBT Families
•
•
“Gay” and “Family” Not Mutually
Exclusive
– One in 3 gay men or lesbians provide
care assistance to adults or children
Institutionalized heterosexism leads to
policy that:
– Prohibits gay marriage or spousal
status
– Limits access to federal programs
– Refuses equal hospital or nursing
home care and/or partner visitation
–
Provides no tax, pension, or survival
benefits
Family-Civil Marriage
• It is estimated that 1,049
protections, benefits, and
responsibilities under
federal law are denied
same-sex couples.
Family Solutions
• Amend the Social Security Act to
provide same-sex couple benefits
• Change Medicaid to allow spenddown protections for partners
• Change pension and tax laws to
recognize domestic same-sex and
opposite-sex relationships
• Repeal the Defense of Marriage Act
(1996)
• Repeal the anti-gay marriage bans
of the various states
Housing Problems
• Fair Housing Act does not explicitly ban
discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation or
gender identity
• Nursing homes, assisted living centers, congregate
housing, and home health care services need
diversity training to deal with sexual needs and
privacy rights of LGBT seniors
– 52% of nursing home social workers surveyed
said their staff were intolerant or condemning of
homosexual activity between residents; 38%
declined to answer the question. (Fairchild et al.,
1996)
Healthcare Problems
• Elder abuse education is
needed so that LGBT seniors
are not the targets of abuse
and neglect
• HIV/AIDS education is
needed; this group is at risk
for cancer, AIDS, tobacco
and alcohol abuse, hate
violence, and domestic
violence
Healthcare Solutions
• Outing Age recommends:
“Fund age-appropriate programs at all
educational levels to teach tolerance,
understanding, and respect regardless of
race, religion, ethnicity, age, national origin,
sexual orientation, disability, gender, or
gender identity.”
Thank you!
More info at my website:
www.uwm.edu/~jhbrown