Transcript Chapter 3
Introduction
Liberalism seeks to promote individual liberty by trying to
guarantee equality of opportunity within a tolerant society
Hallmark of liberalism is promotion of individual liberty
Liberals disagree over what exactly liberty is and how to best
promote it
Human nature:
Human beings are fundamentally rational
Self-interest is primary motivation
Humans are naturally competitive
Liberals consider the individual to be the best judge of her
or his own interests
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Liberalism, Human Nature,
and Freedom
Some conception of human nature provides the
underpinnings for every political ideology.
For liberalism, human beings are typically rational, selfinterested, and competitive, making them capable of living freely
Liberals want to promote the freedom not of a particular
group or class of people but of each person as an individual
The individual must be free to decide for himself and herself what
goals to pursue in life
Each person ought to be free to live as he or she sees fit — as long as
the person does not choose to interfere with others’ freedom to live
as they see fit
Everyone should have an equal opportunity to succeed
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Obstacle:
Laws, customs,
or conditions
that block
individual
choice
Agent:
the
individual
Goal:
to live as
one
chooses
The Liberal View of Freedom
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The Origins of Liberalism
Reaction against medieval concepts of “ascribed status”
and “religious conformity”
Ascribed status: notion that one’s social status is fixed and
determined by birth
Under feudalism, society was divided along class lines into
nobles and commoners
Religious conformity: the Church encouraged Kings and
other secular authorities to enforce religious obedience
Luther emphasized freedom of conscience in the Protestant
Reformation (1521)
This challenged the supremacy of the church and led to a
profusion of protestant sects
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Thomas Hobbes
Hobbes’s Leviathan (1651) was the first work of political
philosophy to be considered liberal
Hobbes imagines a state of nature in which all individuals
are free with no authority over them
These individuals have a natural right to do as they wish
“Restless desire for power” is a product of human nature that
turns the state of nature into a state of war
Rational individuals form a social contract to establish a
political authority to provide security
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John Locke
Like Hobbes, Locke sought to establish a basis for political
authority by starting with the state of nature:
Individuals are naturally equal and free with natural rights to
life, liberty, and property
Individuals form a social contract to establish a political
society to protect their natural rights
Limited government and the right of revolution
Governmental authority is only legitimate when it secures
natural rights
If the government violates these rights, the people have a
right to overthrow the government
No such right exists in Hobbes’s political society
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The American Revolution
American Revolutionaries used Locke’s theory of natural
rights to justify the overthrow of British rule
Thomas Paine argued that government is a necessary evil
that exists mainly to protect our natural rights
The Declaration of Independence has two distinctively
liberal positions:
1. “all men are created equal” – mirrors the state of natural
equality presented by Hobbes and Locke
2. Defense of rights and liberties of individuals against
government
echoes the arguments of Locke and Paine that governments
exist to protect individual rights
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The French Revolution
Enlightenment thinkers in France began to challenge the three
leading features of the ancien régime (old order):
1.
2.
3.
Religious conformity – Catholicism
Aristocratic privilege – hereditary aristocracy
Political absolutism – king is above the law
French Revolutionaries originally set out to establish a limited
government to protect the rights of citizens
The revolution became increasingly radical
Demands for greater democracy superseded property rights
17,000 suspected enemies of the Republic were guillotined during
the “reign of terror” (June 1793-July 1794)
French republic abolished by Napoleon Bonaparte in 1799
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Liberalism and Capitalism, I
17th and 18th century liberals began to focus on economic liberties,
particularly important to the middle class, or, bourgeoisie.
Prevailing economic theory was mercantilism – economic policy is
meant to promote national interests at the expense of individual
liberty
Zero-sum game: one country can improve its economic strength
only at the expense of another country
Resulted in colonization, high tariffs, and government supported
monopolies in certain sectors of the economy
Economic opportunities of the middle class were limited
Acquisition of wealth was primary means of social advancement
Mercantilism favored elites who were able to secure government
privileges
Middle class began to push for more equal opportunity in competition
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Liberalism and Capitalism, II
Capitalism – economic exchanges are private matters between
individuals pursuing profits
Christian and republican traditions did not place great value on
either privacy or profits
Early capitalist theorists:
Bernard Mandeville (1670-1733) – The Fable of the Bees: Private
Vices, Publick Benefits (1714)
The best way to promote the good of society as a whole is to let
people pursue their private interests
Physiocrats – French thinkers who argued that wealth is best
cultivated by unrestricted free enterprise
Laissez faire, laissez passer – “let it be, leave it alone”
Adam Smith (1723-90) – An Inquiry Into the Nature and Causes of
the Wealth of Nations
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Adam Smith’s Invisible Hand
• Government should have little to
do with economic exchanges
• Restraints on economic
competition led to higher
prices and scarcer goods
• Governments should also
eliminate trade barriers on
foreign imports because free
trade benefits consumers
• An “invisible hand” directs
the private interests of
individuals toward the
common interest of society
• Three functions of government:
• National defense, protection
of property rights, and
provision of “public works”
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Liberalism in the 19th Century
From France to South America, liberalism in the early
1800s remained a revolutionary force
Wars of Liberation in the Spanish Colonies
Creation of the Napoleonic Code
Abolition of Serfdom in Prussia
In Britain, the Industrial Revolution made England the
world’s first great industrial power
“The workshop of the world”
Increased social division along class lines; the working class
labored under extremely harsh and insecure conditions
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Utilitarianism
Jeremy Bentham attempted to make society and its legal
institutions more rational
Principle of “utility” – humans naturally seek pleasure and
avoid pain
Government should use this insight to promote “the greatest
happiness for the greatest number”
John Stuart Mill built upon Bentham’s utilitarianism to
defend and extend individual liberty
Stressed the “educative theory of democracy” rather than
the “protectionist theory” of democracy
Like Tocqueville, Mill thought democracy was susceptible to
“the tyranny of the majority”
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Mill on the Limits of Government
The harm principle – all sane adults should be free to do as
they choose as long as their actions do not harm or
threaten harm to others
Establishes the only legitimate purpose for the use of
government power over its citizens
Mill defended this principle by appealing to utility
Freedom promotes “the permanent interests of man as a
progressive being”
Mill does NOT appeal to natural rights as early liberals had
Mill stressed the importance of freedom of thought
Progress depends on the right of “nonconformists” to
express their views without censorship by the majority
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Liberalism Divided
Neoclassical liberals
believe that government
should be limited to
protection against force
and fraud
Social Darwinists argued
that the struggle for
survival was a natural
phenomenon
Government should be a
“nightwatchman”
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Welfare liberals believe
government can be a
positive force to ensure
equal opportunity
T.H. Green (1836-82) drew a
distinction between positive
and negative freedom
Negative freedom: absence
of restraint
Positive freedom: freedom
to do something
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Liberalism in the 20th century
John Rawls (1921-2002) defends the modern welfare state
by reverting back to social contract theory
Justice requires an equal distribution of wealth as a starting
point
Robert Nozick (1938-2002) draws on the idea of the state
of nature to support the protection of individual rights
Libertarianism - only the “minimal state” is legitimate
because it does not violate property rights
Murray Rothbard (1926-95) and libertarian anarchists
advocate abolition of the state
Individuals are free and private enterprise replaces
government services
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The Libertarian Vision
For libertarians, government is necessary to secure
and order society
But it should be a government that does little or nothing
more than protect people against threats to their property
and safety.
Deregulation – phasing out of government regulations
Libertarians envision a market-driven society in which
formerly public services would be bought and sold in
presumably competitive markets
Advocates say that goods and services would be delivered
more cheaply, abundantly, and efficiently under competitive
market conditions
Critics respond that competitive markets are open to the
machinations of manipulators
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Liberalism Today
Three points distinguish today’s liberalism from its past
variants:
1. Liberalism is no longer the revolutionary force it once was—
at least in the West
2. Liberals remain divided among themselves
3. Liberals are now wrestling with difficult problems that stem
from their commitments to individual liberty and equality of
opportunity
•
•
How far should individuals be able to go in exercising their freedom?
How far should equal opportunity be promoted?
According to communitarian critics of liberalism, rights
must be balanced by responsibilities
Individuals may have rights against others, but individuals must
also recognize that they owe something to the community that
enables them to exercise these rights
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Liberalism as an Ideology
1.
Explanation:
2.
Evaluation:
3.
Best conditions are those in which individuals have equal opportunity
to freely choose for themselves how to best succeed
Orientation:
4.
Social conditions are the result of individual choices
People are rational, self-interested individuals who want the freedom
to choose how to live
Program:
Oppose religious conformity, ascribed status, economic privileges,
political absolutism, and tyranny of the majority
Neoclassical and welfare liberals disagree on how best to secure
equal opportunity
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Conclusion: Liberalism
and Democracy
Liberals favor democracy for its ability to protect
individual rights and liberties
Based on the premise of equality among humans
Voting as a way to protect individual liberties
Enables citizens to hold government accountable
State should be neutral to the pursuit of private goods
Liberal democracy is meant to protect individuals from
outside interference in private matters
Political participation is valuable, but secondary to the
primary concern of protecting the private affairs of
individuals
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Readings:
Part III: Liberalism
John Stuart Mill—Liberty and Individuality
Thomas Hobbes—The State of Nature and
the Basis of Obligation
William Graham Sumner—According to the
Fitness of Things
John Locke—Toleration and Government
T. H. Green—Liberalism and Positive
Freedom
Thomas Paine—Government, Rights, and
the Freedom of Generations
Franklin Delano Roosevelt – New Deal
Liberalism: A Defense
Declaration of Independence of the United
States
Barack Obama — Speech at Osawatomie,
Kansas
Declaration of the Rights of Man and of
Citizens
Donald Allen—Paternalism vs. Democracy:
A Libertarian View
Adam Smith—Private Profit, Public Good
Murray Rothbard—Libertarian Anarchism
Immanuel Kant—Freedom and
Enlightenment
Terence Ball—A Libertarian Utopia
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