Transcript Organizational Behavior 11e

Business Leadership
and
Organizational Behavior
Leadership and Power
Craig W. Fontaine, Ph.D.
Leadership Defined
General definition:
“The ability to positively influence people and
systems to have a meaningful impact and achieve
results”
In business:
“The increment of influence over and above an
employee’s mechanical compliance with routine
directives of the organization.”
What Is Leadership?
Leadership
The ability to influence a
group toward the
achievement of goals.
Management
Use of authority inherent
in designated formal rank
to obtain compliance from
organizational members.
Leadership vs. Management
Leaders
Managers
• Work on the system
• Work in the system
• Create opportunities
• React
• Seek opportunities
• Control risks
• Change organizational rules
• Enforce organizational rules
• Provide a vision to believe in
and strategic alignment
• Seek and then follow direction
• Motivate people by satisfying
basic human needs
• Inspire achievement and
energize people
• Coach followers, create selfleaders and empower them
• Control people by pushing them
in the right direction
• Coordinates efforts
• Provide instructions
Leadership
Agenda
Staff handling
Execution
Outcomes
Management
Establishing Direction
Planning/Budgeting
• Develop future vision
• Develop detailed steps/
timetables for results
• Develop change strategies to
achieve vision
• Allocate necessary resources
Aligning People
Organizing/Staffing
• Communicate directly by
words & deeds to those
whose cooperation needed
• Develop necessary planning,
staffing, and delegation
structures
• Influence creation of coalitions
that understand & accept
vision and strategies
• Provide policies/procedures for
guidance and methods/systems
for monitoring
Motivating/inspiring
Control/Problem Solving
• Energy to overcome barriers
to change by satisfying basic
needs
• Monitor results vs. plan in detail
Tends to Produce
Tends to Produce
• Change often dramatic
• Order/predictability
• Provides potential for very
useful change (ex. New
products)
• Key results expected by
stakeholders
• Identify results/plan deviations
and plan and organize to correct
Early Leadership – Trait Theories
 Trait Theories (1920s-30s)
• Early on, it was thought that leaders were born
with inherent physiological traits
• Age
• Height
• Eye Color
– Later research identified seven traits non-physical
traits associated with successful leadership……
Seven Traits Associated with Leadership
Source: S. A. Kirkpatrick and E. A. Locke, “Leadership: Do Traits Really Matter?” Academy of
Management Executive, May 1991, pp. 48–60; T. A. Judge, J. E. Bono, R. llies, and M. W. Gerhardt,
“Personality and Leadership: A Qualitative and Quantitative Review,” Journal of Applied Psychology,
August 2002, pp. 765–780.
Trait Theories – Summary of findings
Research found:
• No universal traits that predict leadership
in all situations.
• Unclear evidence of the cause and effect
of relationship of leadership and traits.
• Traits are a better predictor of the
indealized appearance of leaders than
determing effective and ineffective leaders.
Behavioral Theories
Behavioral Theories of Leadership
Theories proposing that specific behaviors
differentiate leaders from non-leaders.
• Trait theory:
Leaders are born, not made.
• Behavioral theory:
Leadership traits can be taught.
Behavioral Theories (continued)
• Behavioral Theories
– University of Iowa Studies (Kurt Lewin)
• Identified three leadership styles:
– Autocratic style: centralized authority, low participation
– Democratic style: involvement, high participation, feedback
– Laissez faire style: hands-off management
• Research findings: mixed results
– No specific style was consistently better for producing better
performance
– Employees were more satisfied under a democratic leader than
an autocratic leader.
Behavioral Theories (continued)
 Behavioral Theories (cont’d)
– Ohio State Studies
• Identified two dimensions of leader behavior
– Initiating structure: the extent to which a leader is likely to define
and structure his or her role and those of sub-ordinates in the search for
goal attainment.
– Consideration: The extent to which a leader is likely to have job
relationships characterized by mutual trust, respect for subordinate’s
ideas, and regard for their feelings.
• Research findings: mixed results
– High-high leaders generally, but not always, achieved high group task
performance and satisfaction. (see managerial grid)
– Evidence indicated that situational factors appeared to strongly
influence leadership effectiveness.
Behavioral Theories (continued)
• Behavioral Theories (cont’d)
– University of Michigan Studies
• Identified two dimensions of leader behavior
– Employee oriented: emphasizing personal relationships
– Production oriented: emphasizing task accomplishment
• Research findings:
– Leaders who are employee oriented are strongly associated
with high group productivity and high job satisfaction.
The Managerial Grid – Summaries Behavior Theories
 Managerial Grid
– Appraises leadership styles using two dimensions:
• Concern for people
• Concern for production
– Places managerial styles in five categories:
• Impoverished management
• Task management
• Middle-of-the-road management
• Country club management
• Team management
The
Managerial
Grid
Source: Reprinted by permission of Harvard Business Review. An exhibit from “Breakthrough in Organization Development” by Robert R. Blake, Jane S.
Mouton, Louis B. Barnes, and Larry E. Greiner, November–December 1964, p. 136. Copyright © 1964 by the President and Fellows of Harvard College. All
rights reserved.
Contingency Theories of Leadership
 The Fiedler Model
– Proposes that effective group performance depends
upon the proper match between the leader’s style of
interacting with followers and the degree to which the
situation allows the leader to control and influence.
– Assumptions:
• A certain leadership style should be most effective in
different types of situations.
• Leaders do not readily change leadership styles.
– Matching the leader to the situation or changing the
situation to make it favorable to the leader is required.
Contingency Theories… (cont’d)
 The Fiedler Model (cont’d)
– Least-preferred co-worker (LPC) questionnaire
• An instrument that purports to measure whether a person
is task or relationship oriented.
– Situational factors in matching leader to the situation:
• Leader-member relations
• Task structure
• Position power
Fiedler’s Model: Defining the Situation
Leader-Member Relations
The degree of confidence, trust, and respect
subordinates have in their leader.
Task Structure
The degree to which the job assignments are
procedure driven.
Position Power
Influence derived from one’s formal structural
position in the organization; includes power to hire,
fire, discipline, promote, and give salary increases.
Findings from Fiedler Model
Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Leadership
Theory
Situational Leadership Theory (SLT)
A contingency theory that focuses on followers’
readiness.
Unable and
Unwilling
Unable but
Willing
Able and
Unwilling
Able and
Willing
Follower readiness:
ability and willingness
Leader: decreasing need
for support and supervision
Directive
High Task and Relationship
Orientations
Supportive
Participative
Monitoring
Contingency Theories… (cont’d)
 Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Leadership
Theory (SLT)
– Argues that successful leadership is achieved by
selecting the right leadership style which is contingent
on the level of the followers’ readiness.
• Acceptance: leadership effectiveness depends on
whether followers accept or reject a leader.
• Readiness: the extent to which followers have the ability
and willingness to accomplish a specific task.
– Leaders must relinquish control over and contact with
followers as they become more competent.
Contingency Theories… (cont’d)
 Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Leadership
Theory (SLT)
– Creates four specific leadership styles incorporating
Fiedler’s two leadership dimensions:
• Telling: high task-low relationship leadership
• Selling: high task-high relationship leadership
• Participating: low task-high relationship leadership
• Delegating: low task-low relationship leadership
Contingency Theories… (cont’d)
 Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Leadership
Theory (SLT)
– Posits four stages follower readiness:
• R1: followers are unable and unwilling
• R2: followers are unable but willing
• R3: followers are able but unwilling
• R4: followers are able and willing
Hersey & Blanchard’s Model
Hersey & Blanchard’s Model
Source: Reprinted with permission from the Center for Leadership
Studies. Situational Leadership® is a registered trademark of the
Center for Leadership Studies. Escondido, California. All rights
reserved.
Contingency Theories… (cont’d)
 Leader Participation Model (Vroom and Yetton)
– A leadership theory that provides a set of rules to determine
the form and amount of participative decision making in
different situations.
– Contingencies :
• Decision significance
• Importance of commitment
• Leader expertise
• Likelihood of commitment
• Group support
• Group expertise
• Team competence
Prescribed Approaches based on the specific contingencies
• Decide: Leader makes the decision alone and either announces
or sells it to group.
• Consult Individually: Leader presents the problem to group
members individually, gets their suggestions, and then makes
the decision.
• Consult Group: Leader presents the problem to group
members in a meeting, gets their suggestions, and then makes
the decision.
• Facilitate: Leader presents the problem to the group in a
meeting and, acting as facilitator, defines the problem and the
boundaries within which a decision must be made.
• Delegate: Leader permits the group to make the decision within
prescribed limits.
Source: Based on V. Vroom, “Leadership and the DecisionMaking Process,” Organizational Dynamics, vol. 28, no. 4 (2000),
p. 84.
Contingency Theories… (cont’d)
 Path-Goal Model
– States that the leader’s job is to assist his or her
followers in attaining their goals and to provide
direction or support to ensure their goals are
compatible with organizational goals.
– Leaders assume different leadership styles at different
times depending on the situation:
• Directive leader
• Supportive leader
• Participative leader
• Achievement oriented leader
Path-Goal Theory
Cognitive Resource Theory
Cognitive Resource Theory
A theory of leadership that states that stress can
unfavorably affect a situation and that intelligence
and experience can lessen the influence of stress on
the leader.
Research Support:
• Less intelligent individuals perform better in leadership
roles under high stress than do more intelligent
individuals.
• Less experienced people perform better in leadership
roles under low stress than do more experienced people.
Leader–Member Exchange Theory
Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Theory
Leaders create in-groups and out-groups, and
subordinates with in-group status will have higher
performance ratings, less turnover, and greater job
satisfaction.
Leader-Member Exchange Theory
Contemporary Views on Leadership
 Transactional Leadership
– Leaders who guide or motivate their followers in the
direction of established goals by clarifying role and task
requirements.
 Transformational Leadership
– Leaders who inspire followers to transcend their own
self-interests for the good of the organization by
clarifying role and task requirements.
– Leaders who also are capable of having a profound
and extraordinary effect on their followers.
Contemporary Views…(cont’d)
 Charismatic Leadership
– An enthusiastic, self-confident leader whose
personality and actions influence people to behave in
certain ways.
– Characteristics of charismatic leaders:
• Have a vision.
• Are able to articulate the vision.
• Are willing to take risks to achieve the vision.
• Are sensitive to the environment and follower needs.
• Exhibit behaviors that are out of the ordinary.
Contemporary Views…(cont’d)
 Visionary Leadership
– A leader who creates and articulates a realistic,
credible, and attractive vision of the future that
improves upon the present situation.
 Visionary leaders have the ability to:
– Explain the vision to others.
– Express the vision not just verbally but through
behavior.
– Extend or apply the vision to different leadership
contexts.
Contemporary Views…(cont’d)
 Team Leadership Characteristics
– Having patience to share information
– Being able to trust others and to give up authority
– Understanding when to intervene
 Team Leader’s Job
– Managing the team’s external boundary
– Facilitating the team process
• Coaching, facilitating, handling disciplinary problems,
reviewing team and individual performance, training, and
communication
Team Leadership Roles
Gender & Leadership
Of the 425 high-level executives evaluated, each by about 25 people, women
execs won higher ratings on 42 of the 52 skills measured.
Source: R. Sharpe, “As Leaders, Women Rule,” BusinessWeek, November 20. 2000, p. 75.
Gender & Leadership
 New Hiring Bias
– ''I would rather hire a woman,'' says Anu Shukla, who
sold her Internet marketing-software company Rubric
Inc. earlier this year for $390 million. ''I know I'm going
to get a certain quality of work, I know I'm going to get
a certain dedication,'' she says, quickly adding that
she's fully aware that not all women execs excel.
– Brent Clark, CEO of Grand Rapids-based Pell Inc., the
nation's largest foot-care chain, says he would choose
a woman over a man, too. Women are more stable, he
says, less turf-conscious, and better at ''all sorts of
intangibles that can help an organization.''
Source: R. Sharpe, “As Leaders, Women Rule,” BusinessWeek, November 20. 2000, p. 75.
Gender & Leadership
 So why don’t more women have upper
management jobs?
– Women get stuck in HR or PR (Glass Elevator)
– Some businesses view women as “work horses,
well-suited for demanding careers in middle
management but not for prime jobs”
• Thus, many leave to start their own companies
Source: R. Sharpe, “As Leaders, Women Rule,” BusinessWeek, November 20. 2000, p. 75.
Race & Leadership
 Little research comparing white leaders vs. leaders of
color
 Leaders are effective but leadership style differs
– Thailand - close directive supervision
– U.S. - democratic participative approach
– Mexico - autocratic directive approach
 Cultural differences must be considered in managing
people from different countries and cultural
backgrounds
Leadership and Power
 Leaders use power as a way to attain group goals,
and power is a means for facilitating their
achievement
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A Definition of Power
A
B
Contrasting Leadership and Power
 Leadership
– Focuses on goal
achievement.
– Requires goal
compatibility with
followers.
– Focuses influence
downward.
 Power
– Used as a means for
achieving goals.
– Requires follower
dependency.
– Used to gain lateral
and upward
influence.
Bases of Power – Formal (3)
This is perhaps the most
Powerful Source of Power !
Bases of Power - Formal
Bases of Power - Personal Power
Bases of Power - Personal Power
Power Tactics
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Legitimacy
Rational persuasion
Inspirational appeals
Consultation
Exchange
Personal appeals
Ingratiation
Pressure
Coalitions
Effectiveness of Influence Tactics
 Rational persuasion, inspirational appeals
and consultation are most effective
 Pressure is least effective
 Using more than one compatible tactic at the
same time or sequentially increases chance
of success
 “Softer” tactics work better than “harder”
tactics
12-48
Coalitions
 An informal group bound together by the
active pursuit of a single issue
 Coalitions in organization often seek to
maximize their size
 More coalitions will likely be created when
there is a great deal of task and resource
interdependence
 The more routine the task of a group, the
greater likelihood that coalitions will form
12-49
Use of Power Tactics: From Most to
Least Popular
Politics: Power in Action
Politics Is in the Eye of the Beholder
Factors That Influence
Political Behaviors
Employee Responses to
Organizational Politics
Avoiding Action:
Defensive
Behaviors
• Overconforming
• Buck passing
• Playing dumb
Avoiding Blame:
• Stretching
• Buffing
• Stalling
• Playing safe
• Justifying
• Scapegoating
• Misrepresenting
Avoiding Change:
• Prevention
• Self-protection
Implications for Managers
 Accept the political nature of organizations
 Increase power by:
– Acquire the bases of power that are most useful
(expert, referent)
– Use the power tactics that are most effective
(consultation, inspirational appeal)
– Avoid tactics that tend to backfire (coercion)
12-58
Is Political Action Ethical?
Utilitarianism
Rights
Justice