Transcript Slide 1

BA4135 LEADERSHIP
THEORY & APPLICATION
Professor: Pinar Acar
Course Rules
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Professionalism & Courtesy Score
– 5% of letter grade
– Attend every class
– Come and leave on time
– Professional and mature behavior in class
– No cell phones
Assignments
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One project
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Groups of 2 or individually
Letter grades will be adjusted according to peer
evaluations
One simulation
– individual
In-class Exercises &
Cases
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Do advance reading of textbook
material
Read the assigned cases and prepare
the discussion questions
Be prepared to make informal
presentations to class
Use relevant concepts and theories
Other Policies
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No make-up exam
Denying credit to students that fall
short of acceptable performance level
Plagiarism
Information sheets - Mar4
Peer evaluation – last week
Agenda
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Defining leadership
Identify why leadership is important
Discuss leadership effectiveness
Discuss if leaders are born or made
Discuss managerial roles
Identify major approaches to
leadership
Why is leadership
important?
Do
leaders make a difference?
Is leadership only about CEOs of large
companies?
Are leaders born or made?
Defining Leadership
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Leadership is the influencing process of
leaders and followers to achieve shared
objectives
Leaders – Follower
Context: Formal organizations
Influencing: The process of
communicating ideas, gaining
acceptance of them, and motivating
others to support and implement them.
Leadership Effectiveness
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Performance and goal achievement
Follower attitudes
Smooth internal processes
External adaptability
Approaches to Leadership
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Trait approach
Behavior approach
Power-Influence approach
Situational approach
Integrative approach
Chapter 3
The Nature of Managerial Work
Agenda
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Understand the typical activity patterns
for people in managerial positions
Understand the different roles required
for managers
Understand how managers cope with the
demands, constraints, and choices
confronting them
Understand how managers can make
effective use of their time
Typical Activity Patterns in
Managerial Work
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Pace of work is hectic and unrelenting
Content of work is varied and fragmented
Many activities are reactive
Interactions often involve peers and outsiders
2-13
Typical Activity Patterns in
Managerial Work (Cont.)
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Many interactions involve oral
communication
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Decision processes are disorderly and
political
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Most planning is informal and adaptive
The Content of Managerial
Work
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Job description research
– Supervising
– Planning and organizing
– Decision making
– Monitoring indicators
– Controlling
– Representing
– Coordinating
– Consulting
– Administering
Mintzberg’s Managerial
Roles
Managerial Roles
Described
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by Mintzberg.
A role is a set of specific tasks a person
performs because of the position they
hold.
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are 3 broad role categories:
1. Interpersonal
2. Informational
3. Decisional
Interpersonal Roles
Roles managers assume to coordinate
and interact with employees and
provide direction to the organization.
Figurehead
role: symbolizes the
organization and what it is trying to achieve.
Leader
role: train, counsel, mentor and
Liaison
role: link and coordinate people
encourage high employee performance.
inside and outside the organization to help
achieve goals.
Informational Roles
Associated with the tasks needed to
obtain and transmit information for
management of the organization.
Monitor role: analyzes information from
both the internal and external environment.
Disseminator role: manager transmits
information to influence attitudes and
behavior of employees.
Spokesperson role: use of information to
positively influence the way people in and out
of the organization respond to it.
Decisional Roles
Associated with the methods managers use to plan
strategy and utilize resources to achieve goals.
 Entrepreneur role: deciding upon new projects or
programs to initiate and invest.
 Disturbance handler role: assume responsibility for
handling an unexpected event or crisis.
 Resource allocator role: assign resources between
functions and divisions, set budgets of lower managers.
 Negotiator role: seeks to negotiate solutions between
other managers, unions, customers, or shareholders.
Role Conflicts
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2-21
Role senders
Role expectations
Conflicting demands
Perceptions of role requirements
Unique Role Requirements
Stewart (1967, 1976, 1982)
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Demands – required duties, activities,
and responsibilities
Constraints – limiting characteristics of
the organization and external
environment
Choices – activities that a manager
may do but is not required to do
Unique Role Requirements
Situational Determinants
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Pattern of relationships
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Work patterns
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Exposure
Research on Situational
Determinants
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Level of management
Size of organizational unit
Lateral interdependence
Crisis situation
Stage in the organizational life cycle
Changes in the Nature of
Managerial Work
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2-25
Economics, politics, and society
Globalization
New computer and
telecommunications technology
Structure of organizations
Outsourcing and just-in-time
inventories
Time Management
Applications for Managers
Importance of objectives
& priorities
Daily
Tasks
Intermediate Goals
Long-Range Goals
Personal Governing Values
Productivity Pyramid
Time Mgt. Matrix
Importance (driven by values and goals)
Imp
&
Urgent
Not Imp
But
Urgent
Urgency
Imp
But
Not Urgent
Neither Imp
Nor Urgent
Beating the time wasters
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Make a list of all the things you will do
tomorrow.
Prioritize each item in terms of A, B,
and C.
Take time to reclassify
Make a list of all the time wasters that
interfere with your ability to
accomplish your long-term objectives.
Sources of Problems in
Time Mgt.
Some normal human tendencies
 Prefer to do things that are interesting
and pleasant
 Prefer to do things that are easy
 Tend to do things that are urgent
 Wait until just before a deadline
 Not aware of how time is used
 Equate activity with achievement
Sources of Problems in
Time Mgt.
Some basic paradoxes:
 Busy people can’t find time to plan
 People who mostly respond to crisis insure
they will recur
 People who can’t delegate to inexperienced
subordinates are unlikely to develop them
 People who find time to do things for others
are likely to be asked to do even more
things
 People who tend to leave things on their
desk create clutter
Common Time Wasters
for Mgrs.
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Drop-in Visitors
Telephone interruptions
Cluttered office
Unessential tasks
Unnecessary or over-long meetings
– Causes
– Possible remedies
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Barriers
Screening mechanisms
Scheduling mechanisms
Clarifying role expectations
Other Causes
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Plan daily activities
– Make a to-do list and assign priorities
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Procrastination
Perfectionism
Analyzing activity patterns
Managing Stress
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Stress causes a variety of ilnesses.
Work-related effects.
Stress is within the person.
Perceptual and subjective
A certain amount of stress is
inevitable.
Sources of Stress
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Individual differences
– Type A behavior pattern
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Stressful life situations
Work-related stressors
– Work overload
– Time pressures
– Role conflict
– Office politics
Strategies
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Remove yourself
Alter the situation
Teach yourself to respond
differently
– Clarify your values
– Stress vaccine
– Create a personal support system
– Maintain good physical health
– Take energy breaks
Proven Stress Reducers
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Get up 15 min earlier
Prepare for the morning the evening before
Do nothing which leads you to tell a lie
Manage your time effectively
Breathe right
Make contingency plans
Say no.
Delegate responsibility
Do one thing at a time
Chapter 7
Managerial Traits and Skills
Terminology
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Personality: The pattern of relatively
enduring ways in which a person feels, thinks,
and behaves.
Trait: A specific component of personality that
describes particular tendencies a person has to
feel, think, and act in certain ways.
Values: Convictions that a specific course of
action or outcome is personally or socially
preferable to an opposite or converse course of
action or outcome.
Needs: Physiological or psychological
deficiencies that people feel some compulsion to
eliminate.
Skill: An ability to do something effectively
The Big Five Model of
Personality
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Surgency: The tendency to experience positive
emotional states and feel good about oneself and the
world around.
Neuroticism: The tendency to experience negative
emotional states and view oneself and the world
around negatively.
Agreeableness: The tendency to get along well
with others.
Conscientiousness: The extent to which a person
is careful, scrupulous, and persevering.
Openness to Experience: The extent to which a
person is original, has broad interests, and is willing
to take risks.
7
Insert Figure 2.3 here
8
Insert Figure 2.4 here
Why executives are
derailed?
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Used a bullying style viewed as intimidating,
insensitive, and abrasive
Viewed as being cold, aloof, and arrogant
Low emotional stability
Were self-centered and viewed as overly ambitious
and thinking of the next job
Betrayed personal trust (low integrity)
Defensive – resistant to change
Had specific performance problems with the
business
Overmanaged and were unable to delegate or
build a team
Traits of Effective Leaders
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Dominance
High energy
Self-confidence
Integrity
Flexibility
Self-Confidence
Emotional Stability
Sensitivity to others
Intelligence
Internal locus of control
Need for Achievement
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Doing better than competitors
Attaining or surpassing a difficult goal
Solving a complex problem
Carrying out a challenging assignment
successfully
Developing a better way to do
something
Need for Power
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Influencing people to change their
attitudes or behavior
Controlling people and activities
Being in a position of authority over
others
Gaining control over information and
resources
Defeating an opponent or enemy
Need for Affiliation
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Being liked by many people
Being accepted as part of a group or
team
Working with people who are friendly
and cooperative
Maintaining harmonious relationship
and avoiding conflicts
Participating in pleasant social
activities
Leader Motive Profile
Theory
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Attempts to explain and predict leadership
success based on a person’s nAch, nPow.
and nAff. LMP: a high need for power
which is socialized, a moderate need for
achievement and a lower need for
affiliation.
Power – socialized power
Achievement
Affiliation
Agenda
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Research on effective leadership behavior
Yukl’s taxonomy of leadership behaviors
Consolidated products case
Air Force Supply Squadron
Identifying managerial practices
Giving and receiving instructions
Giving praise
Effective Leadership
Behavior
Leadership Style
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The recurrent pattern of behaviors
leaders use as they interact with
followers.
University of Iowa
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Autocratic leadership style
Democratic leadership style
Effective leaders are more democratic
University of Michigan
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Job-centered leadership style
Employee-centered leadership style
Leadership functions can be carried
out by others besides the formal
leader.
Indicated importance of participative
leadership and group supervision
Ohio State University
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2 dimensions of leader behavior:
– Initiating structure
– Consideration
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4 leadership styles:
– Abdicative leader
– Directive/autocratic leader
– Supportive leader
– Participative leader
Blake & Mouton’s
Managerial Grid
Country Club
Management
Concern for People
High
Team
Management
Middle-ofthe-Road
Management
Impoverished
Management
Low
Low
AuthorityCompliance
Management
Concern for Production
High
Contributions
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Efforts to find one best leadership style was
inconclusive
There is no one best style that works in
every situation
Employees are more satisfied with a leader
high on consideration/employeecenteredness
Identification of the two generic dimensions
of leadership behavior
Yukl’s Taxonomy:
Managerial Practices
Early Research
Two broad categories of behavior:
 Task-oriented behavior
 Relationship-oriented behavior
 Both types of behavior are necessary for
effective management
 BUT it was not clear what managers actually
do to accomplish task objectives and build
effective interpersonal relationships
Task-Oriented Behaviors
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Plans and defines work to be done
Assigns tasks and responsibilities
Sets clear work standards
Urges task completion
Monitors performance results
Relationship-Oriented
Behaviors
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Acts warm and supportive toward
followers
Develops social rapport with followers
Respects the feelings of followers
Is sensitive to followers’ needs
Shows trust in followers
14 Managerial Practices
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Planning and Organizing
Problem Solving
Monitoring Operations and
Environment
Motivating
Recognizing
Rewarding
Informing
14 Managerial Practices
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Clarifying Roles and Objectives
Supporting
Developing
Consulting
Delegating
Team Building and Managing Conflict
Networking
Planning & Organizing
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Decision making about what to do, how to do it, who will do
it, and when it will be done.
Purpose:
– ensure efficiency and effective
– achieve coordination with other parts of orgnization
– adapting to external environment
Many varieties
– design of organizational unit’s structure
– design of individual jobs
– allocation of resources among different activities
– development of procedures
Problem Solving
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Purpose: To maintain orderly, stable
operations at the current level of efficiency.
Occurs in response to some immediate
disturbance of normal operations
Differences from planning:
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Purpose
Reactive
Short-term
Shorter duration
Managers should not become too preoccupied
with reacting to day-to-day problems.
Monitoring Operations & Environment
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Gathering information about
– Operations of work unit
– Progress of work
– Performance of subordinates
– Success of projects
– Nature of external environment
Forms of monitoring:
– Walking around
– Reading reports
– Meeting with subordinates
– Inspecting the work
– Getting reactions from customers
Purpose: To maintain the stability of operations and facilitate
adjustments to changes in the external environment
Closely related to planning and problem solving
Informing
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Communication of relevant information needed by
subordinates, peers, or superiors to perform their
jobs and providing outsiders information about the
organization to foster a favorable image.
Forms:
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Making an explanation in a meeting
Calling someone on the phone
Writing memos and reports
Putting messages on the bulletin board
Distributing a newsletter
Relaying written materials
Purpose: To facilitate the work of others
Clarifying Roles & Objectives
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Communication of role expectations to subordinates and others
who make an important contribution to work unit operations.
Purpose: To guide and orient work activity
Forms:
– Giving commands
– Making task assignments
– Explaining rules and procedures
– Explaining duties
– Explaining how to do a task
– Setting standards, goals, and deadlines
– Supervising
Improves subordinate satisfaction and performance where there
would otherwise be role ambiguity.
Improves performance if involves clear, specific, and realistic
performance goals.
Motivating
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Use of influence techniques to generate enthusiasm for the
work, commitment to task objectives, and complaince with
orders and requests
Directed at subordinates, peers, superiors, and outsiders
Influence tactics:
– Rational persuasion
– Inspirational appeals
– Role modeling
Involves use of power
Involves use of visioning speeches and symbolic actions
Recognizing & Rewarding
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Giving of tangible and intagnible rewards
for effective performance, significant
accomplishment, and helpful assistance.
Directed at both subordinates and others
Purpose: To influence behavior and to
increase satisfaction.
Timely recognition and appropriate
rewards are the key
Supporting & Developing
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Showing consideration, acceptance, and
concern for the needs and feelings of
other people.
Developing is a subcategory
Purpose: To build and maintain effective
interpersonal relationships and to
increase job satisfaction
Consulting & Delegating
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Encouraging the participation of others in making
decisions for which the manager is responsible.
Examples:
– Asking for suggestions
– Encouraging evaluation of proposals
– Inviting people to meetings
– Holding special meetings or hearings
– Asking subordinates to solve a problem with you
– Seeking group consensus for decisions
Purpose: To improve the quality and acceptance of
decisions and to enrich jobs of subordinates.
Team Building & Managing
Conflict
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Involves wide variety of behaviors involving development of
teamwork and cooperation.
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Mediating conflicts between others
Smoothing over disagreements
Encouraging the constructive resolution of conflict
Stressing the importance of cooperation
Encouraging the sharing of information and ideas
Using ceremonies and symbols to develop identification with
organizational unit
– Facilitating social interaction among work unit members
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Purpose: To maintain effective working relationships and to
achieve a cohesive work unit.
Networking
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Involves developing and maintaining contacts with
people who are important sources of information and
assistance, both within and outside of the organization.
Examples:
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Socializing and informal discussions
Attending social and ceremonial events
Participating recreational and leisure activities
Joining professional associations or social clubs
Offering assistance
Doing favors that will be appreciated
Providing helpful information
It is important for managers to develop an extensive
contacts with persons in other parts of the organization
and with important outsiders.
Giving Instructions
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Plan the message
What is the goal of the message?
Who should receive the message?
How will you send the message?
When will the message be sent?
Where will the message be
transmitted?
Giving Instructions
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Be careful not to talk too fast
Develop rapport
State your communication objective
Transmit your message
Check understanding
Get a commitment and follow-up
Giving Instructions
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Written communication:
– Set an objective and plan
– Keep the message short and simple
– Edit and rewrite where necessary
Receiving Instructions
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Pay attention
Avoid distractions
Stay tuned
Do not assume and interrupt
Watch nonverbal cues
Ask questions
Take notes
Convey meaning
Analyze
Check understanding
Giving Praise
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The One-Minute Giving Praise Model
(Blanchard & Johnson)
Tell the employee exactly what was
done correctly.
Tell the employee why the behavior
is important.
Stop for a moment of silence.
Encourage repeat performance.
Chapter 4
Participative Leadership
Types of Decision
Procedures
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Autocratic Decision
Consultation
Group Decision
Delegation
Autocratic Decision
The leader makes a decision alone
without asking subordinates for their
ideas and suggestions. Then, the
leader tells them what was decided,
and if necessary, explains the decision
or tries to sell it.
Consultation
The leader explains the decision
problem to subordinates and asks
them for their ideas and suggestions.
The leader may consult with
subordinates individually or together
as a group. Then the leader makes
the final decision after careful
consideration of their input.
Group Decisions
The leader meets with subordinates to
discuss the decision problem and
reach a decision that is acceptable to
everyone or at least to a majority of
group members. The leader runs the
meeting but has no more influence
over the final decision than any other
group member.
Delegation
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The leader gives an individual or group
the authority and responsibility for
making a decision.
Criteria to Select Appropriate
Procedure
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Decision Quality
Decision Acceptance
Time Needed to Make the Decision
Decision Quality
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High- if the selected alternative is the best one among those
available.
Is decision quality an important issue?
Distribution of relevant information and the extent to which it
is possible to bring this info to bear on the decision solution
Does the leader possess all the necessary information?
Do the subordinates have the necessary information and
problem solving skills?
– Is the problem clear-cut?
Does the leader have necessary skills to use consultation and
group decision making?
Do the subordinates share the leader’s objectives?
Decision Acceptance
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The extent to which the persons who must implement the decision believe
in it and are motivated to make it work.
Is decision acceptance by subordinates important?
– Does the leader depend on the subordinates to implement the
decision?
Can acceptance be achieved with an autocratic decision?
– leader has good understanding of the subordinate preferences
– subordinates share the objectives of the leader and leader can
persuade them
– the leader has the skills to persuade subordinates.
– subordinates loyal to the leader and believe in his/her expertise.
If decision acceptance is unlikely with an autocratic decision, use a
participative decision procedure.
Group skills of the leader are important.
Decision Time
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Immediate crisis
Direct and overhead costs
Lost opportunities
Reach a decision as quickly as possible
without jeopardizing decision quality
and acceptance.
Decision Time:
– Autocratic - quickest
– Consultation - slower
– Group - slowest
THE DECISION MODEL
Decision Quality
Qualit not Important
Quality important
Leader has all info
Decision Acceptance
Not important or
Important or Not
Assured w/ Autocratic
Assured w/ Autocratic
AUTOCRATIC
AUTOCRATIC
Quality important
CONSULTATION
Leader does not
have necessary info
GROUP
GROUP
if consistent goals
CONSULTATION
if inconsistent goals
GROUP
if consistent goals
CONSULTATION
if inconsistent goals
Chapter 4 (Cont’d)
Delegation
To Delegate or Not to
Delegate
Strongly disagree
Disagree
Neutral
Agree
Strongly agree
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2
3
4
5
1.
Most of the time subordinates are to inexperienced to do a job, so I prefer to
do it myself._____
2.
It takes more time to explain the job than to do the job myself. _____
3.
Mistakes by subordinates are too costly, so I don’t assign work to them. _____
4.
In my position, I get quicker action by doing a job myself rather than having a
subordinate to do it. _____
5.
Some things simply should not be delegated. _____
6.
Many subordinates are detail specialists and lack the overall knowledge
required for a job out of their specialty; thus, they cannot be assigned
additional job responsibilities. _____
7.
Subordinates are usually too busy to take on any more work. _____
8.
Most subordinates just aren’t ready to handle additional responsibilities. _____
9.
As a manager, I should be entitled to make my own decisions about my doing
detail work rather than administrative work
TOTAL _____
Delegation
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Assignment of new responsibilities to
subordinates and additional authority to
carry them out.
Varieties of Delegation
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The variety and magnitude of
responsibilities.
The amount of discretion or range of choice
allowed in deciding how to carry out
responsibilities.
The authority to take action and implement
decisions without prior approval.
The frequency and nature of reporting
requirements.
The flow of performance information.
Advantages of delegation
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Improved decision quality
Increased commitment
Job enrichment
Subordinate development
Efficient time management
Reasons for lack of
delegation
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Lack of confidence in subordinates
Fear of being blamed for subordinates’
mistakes
Strong for need power
Subordinates have interdependent
jobs & Standardization is important
Mistrust of subordinates
What to Delegate?
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Tasks that can be done better by
subordinates
Tasks that are urgent but not high priority
Tasks relevant to a subordinate’s career
Tasks appropriate for subordinate’s ability
Pleasant and unpleasant tasks
Tasks not central to manager’s role
What not to delegate
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Personnel matters
Confidential activities
Crises
Tasks delegated to you personally
How to Delegate
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Specify responsibilities and check for
comprehension
Provide adequate authority and specify limits of
discretion
Specify reporting requirements
Ensure subordinates acceptance of
responsibilities
Inform others who need to know
Monitor progress
Arrange for the subordinate to receive necessary
information
Provide support and assistance, but avoid
reverse delegation
Make mistakes a learning experience
Potential Pitfalls of
Delegation
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



Misunderstanding the assignment and the
manager’s expectations.
Feeling that assignment surpasses their ability and
being embarrassed by failure.
Not being given the authority to complete the
assignment or the discretion to choose the manner
of completion.
Lack of time
Assigning a lower priority than the one assigned to
it by the manager
Lack of motivation
Delegation Model




Explain the need for delgating and the
reasons for selecting the employee.
Set objectives that define
responsibility, level of authority, and
deadline.
Develop a plan.
Establish control checkpoints and hold
employees accountable.
Chapter 5
The Dyadic Approach to
Leadership
Key Definitions




Dyad: A group of two.
Dyadic: The relationship between a
leader and each follower in a work unit.
Dyadic theory: Approach to leadership
that attempts to explain why leaders vary
their behavior with different followers.
Central idea: A leader will form different
relationships with different followers.
Evolution of The Dyadic
Approach


Vertical Dyadic Linkage Theory (VDL): Leaders’
behaviors and traits have differential impact across
followers creating in-groups and out-groups.
Leader-Member Exchange Theory (LMX):
– Extension of VDL
– Focuses on the quality of the dyadic relationship and its
effects on the organizational outcomes over time.


Partnership/team building: Leaders can create
positive relationships with every subordinate.
Systems and Networks: Dyads can be created in
all directions across levels and boundaries to build
networks that enhance performance.
Vertical Dyadic Linkage






Emphasizes importance of the dyad formed by the
leader with each subordinate.
Leaders develop unique working relationships with each
member and by so doing, they create in-groups and outgroups.
Two kinds of relationships occur among leaders and
followers – in- and out-group.
How does a leader create in-groups and out-groups?
How do these relationships affect the types of power
and influence tactics leaders use?
By focusing on the relationship between a leader and
each follower, VDL research found great variance of
leader style and impact within a group of followers.
In-Group vs. Out-Group







Followers with strong social ties to
their leader in a people-oriented
relationship characterized by high
mutual trust, exchange, loyalty,
and influence.
Leader uses expert, referent, and
reward power.
Leaders have more influence but
can’t use legitimate or coercive
power
Invited to decision making, given
additional responsibility, have
greater access to the leader.
Experience mutual influence and
collaborative effort
Leader grants special favors
Have certain obligations







Followers with little or no social
ties to the leader in a strictly taskoriented relationship characterized
by low exchange, lack of trust and
loyalty, and top-down influence.
Leaders use reward, legitimate,
and coercive power.
Need only comply with formal role
requirements.
Such compliance leads to standard
benefits for the job and no more.
Managed according to the
employment contract.
Receive little inspiration,
encouragement, or recognition
Does not experience positive
relationships
Leader-Member Exchange Theory






Extension of VDL
Attempts to understand the quality of each dyadic
relationship and its effects on organizational outcomes over
time.
What are the attributes of high-quality relationships?
Which influential factors and leader behaviors enhance high
quality leader-member exchange relationships?
What are the effects of variance in the quality of
relationships as revealed through research?
To what extent does bias affect the quality of relationships
between leaders and followers, and how does it influence
their affective, behavioral, and organization-related
performance?
Attributes of High Quality LMX
Relationships



Greater levels of leader support and guidance, higher
levels of follower satisfaction and performance, wide
latitude of discretion for followers, and lower levels of
follower turnover.
A favorable relationship is more likely when the follower is
perceived to be competent and dependable, and the
follower’s values and attitudes are similar to those of the
leader
Impression Management: A follower’s effort to project a
favorable image in order to gain an immediate benefit or
improve long-term relationships.
 Ingratiation – Effort to appear supportive, appreciative,
and respectful.
 Self-Promotion – Effort to appear competent and
dependable
Effects of High Quality LMX
Relationships








Performance ratings
Turnover
Ratings of organizational climate
Job performance
Benefits to the in-group member
Benefits to the leader
Obligations of the leader
Obligations of the in-group member
Partnership Building


Can leaders develop positive
relationships with a large number of
subordinates?
Leaders can develop a unique,
beneficial relationship with each
subordinate and provide all employees
with access to high quality leadermember exchanges.
Systems and Networks


Leader dyads can be expanded to
larger systems.
Leaders should build networks of oneon-one relationships and create
positive relationships with as many
people as possible.
Followership
Definition




One who subscribes to the teachings of another;
an attendant, servant or subordinate; one who
emulates …or agrees with another; one who
accepts guidance or leadership of another (The
American Heritage Dictionary).
A follower is a person who is being influenced by
a leader.
Followership is an interactive role individuals play
that complements the leadership role and is
equivalent to it in importance for achieving
organizational goals.
Degree of enthusiasm, cooperation, effort, active
participation, task competence, and critical
thinking
Examples of Effective Followership





Demonstrating job knowledge and competence while
working without close supervision and completing tasks on
time.
Demonstrating independent critical thinking by developing
one’s own opinions and ideas that show inventiveness and
creativity.
Showing initiative in taking on responsibilities,
participating actively, seeing tasks through to completion,
and taking responsibility for one’s own career
development.
Speaking up frequently to offer information, share
viewpoints, or take issue with decisions or actions that
may be unethical or ill-advised.
Exerting influence on the leader to help the leader avoid
Examples of Ineffective
Followership





Witholding effort
Allowing someone else to make the decision
for which they are responsible and readily
do whatever they are told.
Averting their eyes from wrongdoing rather
than stopping it.
Unwilling to disturb the status quo to do
something worthwhile
Expecting training and development to be
served to them.
Follower Influencing
Characteristics

Follower power
– Expert power
– Referent power
– Position power – information, location,
access


Follower locus of control
Follower education and experience
How to be an effective
follower?






Offer support
Take initiative
Play counseling and coaching roles to
the leader, when appropriate
Raise issues/concerns when necessary
Seek and encourage honest feedback
from the leader
Clarify your role and expectations
How to be an effective
follower?



Show appreciation
Keep the leader informed
Resist inappropriate influence of
leader
Attribution Theory,
Biases, & SelfManagement
Attribution Theory



Attribution: how we explain other people’s
behavior
Is behavior internally or externally
determined?
External attributions – external cause
– Sally has low performance because her
machine is old

Internal attributions – internal cause
– Bill has low performance because he is lazy
Observation
Interpretation
Attribution
of Cause
High
External
Low
Internal
High
External
Low
Internal
High
Internal
Distinctiveness
Attribution
Theory and
Individual
Consensus
Behavior
Consistency
Low
Prentice Hall, 2001
Chapter 5
External
126
Biases



Fundamental Attribution Error: Tendency to
explain other people’s behavior with internal
attributions and to underemphasize plausible
situational causes of the behavior in question
Self-Serving Bias: The tendency to deny
personal responsibility for poor performance but
to accept personal responsibility for high
performance when explaining our own behavior
The type of exchange relationship influences the
leader’s interpretation of the follower’s behavior
Self-Management



A set of strategies a person uses to
influence and improve her behavior.
See table 5-4 for a list of selfmanagement strategies.
Superleadership: The process of
developing self-leadership in others.
Some Suggestions for
Effective Leader Feedback








Take a supportive, problem solving approach
Stay calm and professional
Avoid a rush to judgment
State the deficiency in specific terms
Explain the negative impact of ineffective
behavior
Help the follower identify reasons for poor
performance and suggest remedies for change
Reach agreement on specific action plans
Summarize the discussion and verify agreement
Monitoring and
Reviewing Progress
Monitoring & Reviewing
Progress
Involve gathering information about:
 The progress of the work
 The success of projects or programs
 The performance of individual
subordinates
 The quality of products or services
 The concerns of customers
 Changes in the external environment

When monitoring is
insufficient:

Failure to detect problems before they
become serious
 Declining quality
 Low productivity
 Employee dissatisfaction
 Customer dissatisfaction
 Projects behind schedules
 Customer preferences
 New technologies
When monitoring is
insufficient:




Unable to provide recognition
Unable to identify subordinates who
need help
Unable to evaluate performance of
subordinates
Unable to determine a sound basis to
allocate rewards
Requirements for
Effective Monitoring




Network of contacts
Organizational systems such as
Information systems and control
systems
Formal goal setting programs such as
MBO
Good relations with subordinates
Monitoring is especially
important if





Subordinates are inexperienced and
unskilled
Mistakes and accidents would be
expensive
Task is difficult and complex
Interdependence is high
Disruptions are likely
Forms of Monitoring





Observation
Reading reports
Inspecting quality of product samples
Surveying customer/employees
Holding meetings – Progress review
meetings
Progress Review
Meetings




Facilitate correction of performance
problems
Help a managers to determine if a a
subordinate needs help
Improve manager-subordinate
communication
Help assess if goals and plans are
realistic
Progress Review
Meetings



Timing of meetings
Preparation for meetings
Identifying reasons for unsatisfactory
progress
Situational causes
Deficiencies in subordinate skill or
motivation
Procedures for Progress Review
Meetings









Review purpose and show enthusiasm
Begin with a high priority goal
Ask the subordinate to summarize progress on the
goal
Explore any disagreements about progress
Explore reasons why progress is not on target
Consider potential problems that could delay
progress
Ask the subordinate to suggest corrective actions
Record level of progress and agreements on action
steps
Summarize the discussion
Chapter 6
Power & Influence
A Model of Power and
Influence
Manager
Power
Influence
Behavior
Outcomes
Manager
Skills
Outcomes of Influence
Attempts



Commitment: Most successful; the
person is enthusiastic about carrying
out the request and makes a
maximum effort.
Compliance: Partially successful; the
person is apathetic about carrying out
the request and makes only a minimal
effort.
Resistance: Unsuccessful; the person
Influence Processes



Instrumental compliance: Carries out
the requested action to obtain a
tangible reward or avoid a punishment
controlled by the agent.
Internalization: Carries out the
requested action because it appears to
be intrinsically desirable and correct in
relation to his values, beliefs, and self
image.
Personal identification: Imitates the
Power



The potential of one person (agent) to exert
influence on another person (target).
Stems from the dependency of the target
person on the agent person
Sources of Power
– Personal
– Position

Determines whether influence attempts will
be successful.
Position Power





Legitimate Power: The lawful right to make
a decision and expect compliance.
Reward Power: The perception that the
manager controls important rewards
Coercive Power: Power to punish for
noncompliance.
Information Power: Control over access to
and distribution of information.
Ecological Power: Control over the physical
environment, technology, and organization
Personal Power


Expert Power: Power stemming from
specialized knowledge and skills.
Referent Power: Desire of others to
please a manager toward whom they
have a strong feelings of affection,
admiration, and loyalty.
Influence Skills

Diagnostic skills:
– E.g. empathy, insight, social sensitivity
– Help select an appropriate influence tactic
– Analyze the situation and understand the
motives and values of the target persons

Execution skills:
– Persuasiveness, decisiveness, bargaining
ability, and acting ability
Influence Tactics








Legitimating Tactic
Rational Persuasion
Exchange Tactic
Personal Appeals
Inspirational Appeal
Consultation
Pressure Tactic
Coalition Tactic
Legitimating Tactics


Request based on legitimate power
Forms of behavior that establish the
legitimacy of a request:
– Providing evidence of prior precedent
– Showing consistency with organizational policies
– Showing consistency with the duties and
responsibilities of the person’s position
– Indicating that the request endorsed by higher
management

Usually results in minimal compliance
Rational Persuasion


Involves use of expertise to present
logical arguments, backed by factual
evidence
Appropriate when target person has
compatible goals
– Identify target person’s goals first

Requires technical knowledge, being
recognized as credible and
trustworthy, and skills in persuasive
Inspirational Appeal



Attempt to arouse emotions as the
mechanisms for motivating
commitment
Involves using target person’s values
and ideals to motivate him to do a
task
Requires insight into the values,
hopes, and fears of the target
person/s and communication skills
Consultation


Attempt to increase the motivation of
a person by allowing him to participate
in making the decision.
Appropriate when the target has
compatible goals
Exchange Tactics




Involves the explicit or implicit offer of
rewards for doing what is requested
Appropriate when the target is
indifferent or reluctant
First identify which of the rewards
controlled by you are desired by the
target
It may not be clear what rewards you
control
Personal Appeals




Involves asking s.o. to do a favor
based on friendship or loyalty
Requires considerable referent power
and the request should be perceived
as important to the manager
Use sparingly
Make an effort to maintain strong
personal relationships
Ingratiation


Involves behavior that makes s.o. feel
better about you
When sincere, strengthen friendship
and provide a strong basis for
influence
Pressure tactics



Include coercion, intimidation, and
pushy behavior
Compliance is greatest if threat is seen
credible
Use as last resort – serious side effects
Coalition Tactics



Indirect influence attempt which
involves getting the support of other
people
Coalition partners can be active or
passive
Can be used in combination with other
tactics
New Tactics


Collaboration: Involves reducing the
difficulty or costs of carrying out a
request
Apprising: Involves explaining why a
request is likely to benefit the target
Chapter 8
Contingency Theories
Contingency Theories
“When and under what circumstances is a
particular leadership style preferable to
others?”




There is no one best way to lead
Leadership effectiveness = f(leader, situation)
Leaders are most effective when they make their
behavior contingent upon situational forces.
Goal: To understand how different situations
affect leadership success.
Contingency Theories
Fielder’s Contingency Theory
 Path-Goal Theory
 Substitutes for Leadership
 Cognitive Resources Theory
 Multiple Linkage Model

Fiedler's Contingency Theory






Assumption: Good leadership depends on the match
between leadership style and situational demands.
Leadership style - Least-Preferred Coworker Scale
Relationship-motivated leader is concerned with
people
OR
Task-motivated leader is primarily motivated by task
accomplishment.
Leadership style is part of one’s personality.
Leadership Success <= Putting the styles to work in
situations for which they are good fits.
Fiedler’s Contingency Theory
1. Understanding the leadership style:
 Determined by Least-Preferred Coworker (LPC) Scale.
 High LPC leader: Tendency to a relationship-oriented
leadership style
 Low LPC leader: Tendency to a task-oriented
leadership style.
2. Diagnosing the leadership situation: to identify the
extent of control a situation allows a leader:
 Quality of leader-member relations (good-poor)
 Degree of task structure (high-low)
 Amount of position power (strong-weak)
Fiedler’s Contingency Theory
3. Matching the leadership style and the situation
 Neither the task-oriented nor the relationshiporiented style is effective all the time.
 A task-oriented leadership will be most
successful in either very favorable or very
unfavorable situations.
 A relationship-oriented leadership will be most
successful in situations of moderate control
Fiedler’s Contingency Model
LeaderMember
Relations
GOOD
POOR
Task
Structure
HIGH
LO W
HIGH
Position
Power
S
S
W
S
W
S
III
IV
V
VI
VII
W
I
1
II
Kinds of
Leadership
Very
Situations Favorable
LOW
W
VIII
Very
Unfavorable
Relationship-oriented managers most effective in IV, V, VI, VII.
Task-oriented managers most effective in I, II, III or VIII.
Implications



Improve leader-member relations
Initiate structure
Exercise more position power
Path-Goal Theory
An effective leader clarifies paths through
which subordinates can achieve goals and
increases the rewards they value.
 Increasing Rewards: The leader talks with
subordinates to learn which rewards are
important to them. Then, aligns these rewards
with task accomplishment.
 Path Clarification: The leader helps
subordinates learn the behaviors that lead to
task accomplishment and rewards.

Path Clarification
Leader defines what
follower must to do
attain work outcomes
Increase Rewards
Leader learns
follower’s needs
Leader clarifies
follower’s work role
Leader matches follower’s
needs to rewards if work
outcomes are accomplished
Follower has increased
knowledge and confidence
to accomplish outcome
Leader increases value of
work outcomes for follower
Follower displays increased
effort and motivation
Organizational work
outcomes are accomplished
Path-Goal Theory






Four leadership Styles:
Directive leadership: Giving directions,
scheduling their work, establishing performance
standards.
Supportive leadership: Making work pleasant,
being friendly, showing concern.
Achievement-oriented leadership: Setting
challenging goals, displaying confidence,
expecting high levels of performance from
subordinates.
Participative leadership: Involving subordinates
in decision making.
Types of behavior that every leader can adopt
depending on the situation.
Path-Goal Theory
•Choice depends on work environment –task structure,
formal authority and work group- and subordinates’ personal
characteristics -authoritarianism, locus of control, ability.
•Managerial Implications:
•Leaders should switch their behavior to match the
situation.
•Managers must use the leadership style that complements
the needs of the situation.
•Common Managerial Situations:
job assignments are unclear - Directive Leadership
worker self-confidence is low - Supportive Leadership
performance incentives are poor - Participative Leadership
task challenge is insufficient - Achievement-Oriented
Leadership
Substitutes for Leadership
Aspects of the work setting and the people involved
that can reduce the need of a leader’s personal
involvement or neutralize the effect of a leader.

Organizational Variables
*
Group cohesiveness
Formalization
*
Task characteristics
*
*
*
*
Highly structured task
Automatic feedback
Intrinsic satisfaction
Substitutes for
Leadership

*
*
Subordinate characteristics
Professionalism
Training/experience
The Multiple Linkage
Model
Four types of variables:
 Leader behavior
 Intervening variables
 Criterion variables
 Situational variables
 Focuses on the performance of a work
group

Intervening Variables






Task commitment
Ability and role clarity
Organization of the work
Cooperation and mutual trust
Resources and support
External coordination
Key Ideas





Intervening variables determine group
performance.
Group leader can increase/decrease group
effectiveness through influencing intervening
variables.
Aspects of the situation influence the current level
intervening variables independent of leader
behavior.
Leaders can improve group performance by
correcting any deficiencies in the intervening
variables.
Leaders should make the conditions more
favorable over the long-run.
Situational Variables











Formal reward system
Intrinsically motivating job
Prior training and experience of subordinates
Task structure
Type of technology
Competitive strategy
Size of the group
Group homogeneity
Formal budget systems
Inventory systems
Organization structure
Leader Actions






Offer special incentives
Set specific goals
Reorganize activities
Build and emphasize common group
identity
Obtain needed resources
Improve external coordination
Situational Variables Neutralizers




Leader’s position power
Organizational policies
Technology
Legal-contractual restrictions
Cognitive Resources Theory









Do situations arise in which leader’s intelligence and other cognitive
abilities can be a disadvantage?
How does stress impact a leader’s effectiveness?
Two leader characteristics: intelligence and experience
Contingency variable: stress
Propositions:
Leader’s intelligence can contribute positively to group performance when
the leader is directive.
Stress moderates the relationship between intelligence and performance:
 When the situation is not stressful, leader’s intelligence is an asset .
 In times of high stress leader’s intelligence can either detract from or
have no impact on group performance.
A leader’s experience is positively related to group performance in highstress situations but not in low-stress situations.
Implication: The role of stress in leadership situations must be considered.
Chapter 9
Charismatic and Transformational
Leadership
Contributions



Look at different aspects of leaders
Highlight the importance of followers’
emotions
Focus on the leaders at top levels of
organizations
Charisma




Divine gift of grace
Max Weber => a type of influence based on
exceptional qualities of an individual person
– heroic acts
– advocating revolutionary mission
Today =>endowment of exceptional qualities and
high self-esteem and referent power from followers.
Definition: A distinct social relationship between the
leader and follower in which the leader presents a
revolutionary idea or ideal which goes beyond the
immediate or the reasonable; while the followers
accept this course of action not because of its
rational likelihood of success but because of an
effective belief in the extraordinary qualities of the
leader.
Locus of Charisma




What causes a leader to be perceived
as charismatic?
Situation
Leader’s qualities
Interaction of both
Personal Meaning








Self-belief
Legacy
Selflessness
Cultural heritage and traditions
Political and social causes
Faith and spirituality
Values
Personal interests
Behavioral Components





The discrepancy between the status
quo and future vision
Vision articulation
Role modeling
Use of unconventional strategies
A realistic assessment of resources
and constraints
Charismatic Leadership

An attribution made by followers about
leaders who exhibit certain personal
traits, abilities, and behaviors and who
have unusually strong influence on
followers’ emotions, values, beliefs,
attitudes, and behaviors.
Hi emotional
Involvement &
attachment
Hi trust, esteem,
Acceptance,
Loyalty to leader
Hi self-esteem
Experienced
Meaningfulness
Of work
Effects on
Followers
Hi satisfaction
with
Leader,
Work,
Organization
Hi individual
And group
performance
Hi
commitment
Assertive, dynamic,
outgoing, and
forceful
Communication
&
Rhetorical skills
Vision
Key Skills,
Characteristics
Referent &
Expert
power
Hi risk
orientation
Self-confidence,
Self-assurance
Inspire trust
Need for
power
Processes




Personal identification
Internalization
Social identification
Social contagion
Consequences of Charisma



Negative charismatics:
– Personalized power orientation
– Emphasize personal identification
– Ideology used to serve personal objectives
– Dominate followers
– Centralized authority
– Information controlled
Positive charismatics
– Socialized power orientation
– Emphasize internalization of values
– Devotion to ideology emphasized
– Authority delegated
– Information shared
– participation encouraged
Negative consequences – see Table 9-2
Other Topics


Close and Distant Charisma
Routinization of charisma
– Transfer charisma to successor
– Create and administrative structure
– Embed it in the culture
Transformational
leadership

Process of appealing to moral values
of followers in an attempt to raise
their consciousness about ethical
issues and to mobilize their energy
and resources to reform institutions
Transformational Leadership
Defining characteristics
– Followers feel trust, admiration, loyalty, and respect
– Followers do more than they initially expected
– Followers are transformed
 Leader behavior
– Make followers aware of the importance of task
outcomes
– Make followers go beyond their self-interest for the sake
of the organization
– Activate followers’ higher order needs
– Bass’ typology – idealized influence, individualized
consideration, inspirational motivation, intellectual
stimulation
 Influence processes
– Internalization (primary)
– Personal identification
Facilitating Conditions - Any situation

Transformational Leader
Behaviors






Creation and articulation of vision
Role modeling
Building teamwork and encouraging
acceptance of group goals
High performance expectations
Personalized leader-member exchange
Empowerment
Transformational Leader
Characteristics







See themselves as change agents
Are visionaries
Are risk takers
Capable of articulating a set of values
Possess exceptional cognitive skills
Show sensitivity to needs of others
Are flexible and open to learn form
experience
Differences between Transformational
and Charismatic Leadership


Charismatics:
– perceived as extraordinary,
– unconventional vision,
– unusual strategies and behavior,
– personal identification and impression management,
– personal risk taking and self-sacrifice,
– rare and emerge under certain conditions
– hands on style and followers are dependent on them,
Transformational leaders:
– inspiring, empowering, and developing followers
– emphasize internalization more than personal identification
– create followers less dependent on the leader
– universally relevant for all types of situations
Transactional Leadership


A leader who clarifies subordinates’
role and task requirements, initiates
structure, provides rewards, and
displays consideration for
subordinates.
Appeals to self-interest
Theories of Charismatic
Leadership

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
Attribution Theory of Charismatic
Leadership
Self-Concept Theory of Charismatic
Leadership
Psychodynamic processes
Social Contagion
Close and distant charisma
Routinization of charisma
Attribution Theory of Charismatic Leadership

Charisma is an attributional phenomenon
– Leader behaviors and skills
– Aspects of the situation

Leader behavior and skills:
– Advocate a vision that is different from the
status quo
– Act in unconventional ways
– Make self-sacrifices, take personal risks and
incur high costs
– Appear confident
– Use visioning and persuasive appeals
– Skills and expertise to assess the environment

Attribution Theory of Charismatic
Leadership
Influence Processes
– Personal identification: desire to please and
imitate the leader
– Internalization: adopting the leader’s ideals
and goals and become inspired to attain them.

Facilitating Condition
– Follower disenchantment
Self-Concept Theory of Charismatic
Leadership



Explains how charismatic leaders behave, their traits and skills, and the
conditions in which they are likely to emerge
Defining charisma:
– Has profound and unusual effects on followers
– Beliefs are perceived as correct
– Followers willingly obey
– Follower feel affection toward the leader
– Followers emotionally involved in the mission
– Followers set high performance goals
– Followers believe they can contribute to organizational goals
Traits:
– Strong conviction in beliefs
– High self-confidence
– High need for power
Self-Concept Theory of Charismatic
Leadership



Behaviors:
– Articulate an appealing vision
– Use strong, expressive forms of communication
– Take personal risks and make self-sacrifices
– Communicate high expectations
– Express confidence
– Role model
– Manage impressions
– Build identification with the group
– Empower followers
Influence Processes
– Social identification: Followers define themselves in terms of
membership in a group or organization
– Internalization
– Augmenting individual and collective self-efficacy
– Personal identification
Self-Concept Theory of Charismatic
Leadership

Facilitating Condition:
– Leader’s vision congruent with follower values
– Task roles can be defined ideologically
– Trouble, panic, anxiety
Psychodynamic Processes


Aim to explain the unusual influence of
some charismatic leaders
Make use of psychodynamic processes
such as regression, transference, and
projection
Social Contagion



Aim to explain how charismatic attributions are
made by people who do not directly interact with
the leader
Focuses on influence processes that occur among
the followers
Social contagion: Charismatic leader can activate
heroic image of followers and cause followers to
behave with unusual devotion to a great cause.
When others observe this, their heroic self-image
may also be activated replicating observed
behavior. Extreme devotion to leader and cause
becomes contagious and spreads
Advocates moral
Mission &Vision
Makes
Inspirational
speeches
Build
own image
In followers’
eyes
Behaviors of
charismatic
leaders
Takes risks
Role models
Behavior
Uses frame
Alignment to
Guide
followers
Task Characteristics
Have moral element
May have implications
On how people do
things and think
Follower Characteristics
Distress, anxiety, uncertainty,
disenchantment
Enhancers
Of
Charisma
Leader Characteristics
High status, rank, experience
Chapter 11
Leading Teams & Decision Making
Groups
Agenda




Leadership roles in different types of
teams
Team building
Leading decision making groups
Case: Building maintenance
Types of Teams

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


Functional Teams
Cross-Functional Teams
Self-Managed Teams
Self-Defining Teams
Executive Teams
Virtual Teams
Functional Teams




Long duration
Stable membership
Appointed leader with considerable authority
Effective leadership involves influencing inputs,
processes, and outcomes
–
–
–
–
–
–
Task commitment
Member skills and role clarity
Performance strategies
Trust and cooperation
Resources and political support
External coordination and adaptation
Cross-Functional Teams






Consist of representatives from various
functional areas.
May include outsiders
Ex. New product development, new
project development
Lateral tools
Usually temporary
Dual responsibility of team members
Cross-Functional Teams





Benefits
Drawbacks
More effective when they have an appointed leader.
Leader Skills:
– Technical skills
– Administrative skills
– Interpersonal skills
– Cognitive skills
– Political skills
Leadership behaviors:
– Envisioning
– Organizing
– Social integrating
– External spanning
Self-Managed Work
Teams





Members from the same function
Authority of the team leader/manager is
shared by team members
Sometimes they may produce the entire
product.
Members usually rotate tasks
Two kinds of leadership roles:
– Internal leadership


Shared or rotated
Decisions related to performing the task, personnel
decisions, purchasing some materials, etc.
– External leadership
Leading Decision Groups


Potential advantages of group
decisions
Potential disadvantages of group
decisions
Presentation of the Problem



Be brief
Share essential information
Use situational terms
– “How can we get people to stop their excessive use of xerox
machines?”
– “How can we reduce duplicating costs?”

Avoid suggesting causes or solutions
– “How can we use incentives to increase employee productivity?”
– “How can we increase employee productivity?”

Invoke mutual interests
– “How can we hold down production costs?”
– “How can we protect our jobs by keeping production costs below
those of competitors?”

Specify one primary objective
– “How can we reduce errors and delays in deliveries to customers?”
Problem Diagnosis
Confusing facts with opinions or
assumptions
 Confusing symptoms with causes
 Looking for scapegoats to blame
 Proposing solutions before the
problem is clearly understood
 Encourage alternative problem
statements
 Evaluate alternative problem

Solution Generation



Focus on the present
Encourage novel solutions
Separate idea generation and
evaluation (brainstorming, nominal
group technique)
Solution Evaluation

Common Problems:
– Incomplete participation
– Groupthink
– Hasty decisions






Allow ample time to evaluate consequences
Facilitate participation
Encourage positive restatement and idea building
List advantages and disadvantages
Identify costs and benefits
Assign devil’s advocates
Solution Choice








Major issue: avoiding polarization
Discourage polarization
Encourage an integrative solution
Encourage experimentation
Hold a second chance meeting
Equalize participation
Encourage consensus
Clarify responsibilities for implementation
Characteristics of a Team




Committed to a common purpose or a
goal
Members have clear roles and
responsibilities that are interdependent
Has communication structure that
allows sharing of information
Members have a sense of mutual
accountability
Roles of Team Members




Role
Role ambiguity: The members are uncertain
about their roles.
Role overload/underload: Too much/little is
expected from members.
Role conflict: Member is unable to comply
with his/her role.
– Conflicting expectations from a supervisor
– Conflicting expectations from different people.
– One’s values and needs conflict with role
expectations.
– Expectations of two or more roles conflict.
Roles of Team Members



Task roles
Group maintenance roles
Self-oriented roles
Formal Approaches to
Team Building

Examine three questions:
– What do we do well?
– What areas need improvement?
– What are the barriers to improvement?



Role analysis technique
Role negotiation
Responsibility charting
Informal Approaches to
Team Building




Trust
Common goals
Open honest communication
Creating opportunities for group
interaction