Transcript Individual Behavior, Personality, and Values

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Individual Behavior,
Personality, and
Values
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Copyright © 2013 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
MARS Model of Individual Behavior
Situational
factors
Personality
Motivation
Values
Self-concept
Perceptions
Ability
Emotions &
attitudes
Stress
Individual
behavior and
results
Role
perceptions
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Employee Motivation

Internal forces that affect a person’s
voluntary choice of behavior
• direction
• intensity
• persistence
S
M
A
BAR
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Employee Ability

Natural aptitudes and learned capabilities
required to successfully complete a task
 Competencies - personal characteristics that
lead to superior performance
 Person - job matching
• selecting
• developing
• redesigning
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M
A
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Role Perceptions

Beliefs about what behavior is required to
achieve the desired results:
• understanding what tasks to perform
• understanding priority of tasks
• understanding preferred behaviors
to accomplish tasks
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M
A
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Situational Factors

Environmental conditions beyond the
individual’s short-term control that constrain
or facilitate behavior
 Constraints – time, budget, facilities, etc
 Cues – e.g. signs of nearby hazards
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M
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Types of Individual Behavior
Task Performance
Organizational
Citizenship
Counterproductive
Work Behaviors
Joining/staying with the
Organization
Maintaining Work
Attendance
Goal-directed behaviors under the
person’s control
Contextual performance – cooperation
and helpfulness beyond required job
duties
Voluntary behaviors that potentially harm
the organization
Agreeing to employment relationship;
remaining in that relationship
Attending work at required times
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Defining Personality

Relatively enduring pattern of thoughts,
emotions, and behaviors that characterize a
person, along with the psychological
processes behind those characteristics
• External traits – observable behaviors
• Internal states – thoughts, values, etc inferred from
behaviors
• Some variability, adjust to suit the situation
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Nature vs. Nurture of Personality

Influenced by Nature
• Heredity explains about 50 percent of
behavioral tendencies and 30 percent
of temperament
• Minnesota studies – twins had similar
personalities

Influenced by Nurture
• Socialization, learning
• Personality stabilizes throughout
adolescence
• Executive function steers behavior
guided by our self-concept
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Five-Factor Personality Model
(CANOE)
Conscientiousness
Organized, dependable
Agreeableness
Trusting, helpful, flexible
Neuroticism
Anxious, self-conscious
Openness to Experience
Creative, nonconforming
Extraversion
Outgoing, talkative, energetic
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Jungian Personality Theory

Swiss psychiatrist Carl Jung
 Identifies preferences for perceiving the
environment and obtaining/processing
information
 Commonly measured by Myers-Briggs Type
Indicator (MBTI)
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MBTI

Personal type ?
 http://www.humanmetrics.com/cgiwin/jtypes2.asp
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Jungian & Myers-Briggs Types
Extraversion (E)
•Talkative
•Externally-focused
•Assertive
Sensing (S)
•Concrete
•Realistic
•Practical
Thinking (T)
•Logical
•Objective
•Impersonal
Judging (J)
•Organized
•Schedule-oriented
•Closure-focus
Getting
energy
Perceiving
information
Making
decisions
Orienting to the
external world
Introversion (I)
•Quiet
•Internally-focused
•Abstract
Intuitive (N)
•Imaginative
•Future-focused
•Abstract
Feeling (F)
•Empathetic
•Caring
•Emotion-focused
Perceiving (P)
•Spontaneous
•Adaptable
•Opportunity-focus
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Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)

Extroversion versus introversion
• similar to five-factor dimension

Perceiving information
• Sensing – uses senses, factual, quantitative
• Intuition – uses insight, subjective experience

Judging (making decisions)
• Thinking – rational logic, systematic data collection
• Feeling – influenced by emotions, how choices affect
others

Orientation toward the external world
• Perceiving – flexible, spontaneous, keeps options open
• Judging – order and structure
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Values in the Workplace

Stable, evaluative beliefs that guide our
preferences

Define right or wrong, good or bad

Value system -- hierarchy of value
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Schwartz’s Values Model

Openness to change –
motivation to pursue
innovative ways

Conservation -- motivation to
preserve the status quo

Self-enhancement -motivated by self-interest

Self-transcendence -motivation to promote welfare
of others and nature
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In Search of Congruent Values
Similarity of a person’s values hierarchy to another
source
 Person-organization value congruence
 Espoused-enacted value congruence
 Organization-community values congruence
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Three Ethical Principles
Utilitarianism
Individual
Rights
Distributive
Justice
Greatest good for the greatest number
of people
Fundamental entitlements
in society
People who are similar should receive
similar benefits
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Influences on Ethical Conduct

Moral intensity
• degree that issue demands ethical principles

Ethical sensitivity
• ability to recognize the presence and determine the
relative importance of an ethical issue

Situational influences
• competitive pressures and other external factors

Mindfulness
• actively evaluate whether action violates values
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Individualism
High Individualism
USA
Italy
India
The degree to which people
value personal freedom, selfsufficiency, control over
themselves, being appreciated
for unique qualities
Denmark
Taiwan
Low Individualism
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Collectivism
High Collectivism
Italy
Taiwan
The degree to which people
value their group membership
and harmonious relationships
within the group
India
Denmark
USA
Low Collectivism
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Power Distance
High Power Distance

Malaysia
• Value obedience to authority
Venezuela
• Comfortable receiving
commands from superiors
• Prefer formal rules and authority
to resolve conflicts
Japan

USA
Denmark
Israel
Low Power Distance
High power distance
Low power distance
• expect relatively equal power
sharing
• view relationship with boss as
interdependence, not
dependence
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Uncertainty Avoidance
High U. A.
Greece
Japan

• feel threatened by ambiguity
and uncertainty
• value structured situations and
direct communication
Italy
USA
High uncertainty avoidance

Low uncertainty avoidance
• tolerate ambiguity and
uncertainty
Singapore
Low U. A.
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Achievement-Nurturing
Achievement
Japan

High achievement
orientation
• assertiveness
• competitiveness
China
USA
France
Chile
• materialism

High nurturing orientation
• relationships
• others’ well-being
Sweden
Nurturing
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Perceiving
Ourselves and
Others in
Organizations
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Copyright © 2013 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Self-Concept Defined
An individual’s self-beliefs and self-evaluations
 “Who am I?” and “How do I feel about myself?”
 Compare perceived job with our perceived and ideal selves.
 Includes three self-concept dimensions and four “selves”
processes

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Self-Concept Dimensions (3 C’s)

Complexity
• People have multiple self-views

Consistency
• Similar personality and values across multiple selves

Clarity
• Clearly and confidently described, internally consistent,
and stable across time.

People have better well-being with:
• multiple selves (complexity)
• well established selves (clarity)
• selves are similar and compatible with traits
(consistency)
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Four “Selves” of Self-Concept

Self-enhancement
• Promoting and protecting our positive self-view

Self-verification
• Affirming our existing self-concept

Self-evaluation
• Evaluating ourselves through self-esteem, self-
efficacy and locus of control

Social self
• Defining ourselves in terms of group membership
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Self-Concept: Self-Enhancement

Drive to promote/protect a positive self-view
• competent, attractive, lucky, ethical, valued

Positive self-concept outcomes:
• better personal adjustment and mental/physical
health
• inflates personal causation and probability of
success
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Self-Concept: Self-Verification

Motivation to verify/maintain our self-concept
 Stabilizes our self-concept
 People prefer feedback consistent with their
self-concept
 Self-verification outcomes:
• More likely to perceive information consistent with
our self-concept
• We interact more with those who affirm/reflect our
current self-concept
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Self-Concept: Self-Evaluation

Self-esteem
• High self-esteem -- less influenced, more
persistent/logical

Self-efficacy
• Belief in one’s ability, motivation, role perceptions,
and situation to complete a task successfully
• General vs. task-specific self-efficacy

Locus of control
• General belief about personal control over life
events
• Higher self-evaluation with internal locus of control
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Self-Concept: Social Self
•
Social identity -- defining ourselves in terms of groups
to which we belong or have an emotional attachment
•
We identify with groups that support self-enhancement
Social Identity
Edward Jones
Employee
American
Resident/Citizen
An individual’s
social identity
Indiana U.
Graduate
Contrasting Groups
Employees at
other firms
People living in
other countries
Graduates of
other schools
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Perception Defined

The process of receiving
information about and making
sense of the world around us
• Determining which information
gets noticed
• how to categorize this
information
• how to interpret information
within our existing knowledge
framework
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Selective Attention




Selecting vs ignoring sensory
information
Affected by object and
perceiver characteristics
Emotional markers attached to
selected information
Confirmation bias
• Information contrary to our
beliefs/values is screened out
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Perceptual
Organization/Interpretation

Categorical thinking
• Mostly nonconscious process of organizing
people/things

Perceptual grouping principles
• Similarity or proximity
• Closure -- filling in missing pieces
• Perceiving trends

Interpreting incoming information
• Emotional markers automatically evaluate
information
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Mental Models in Perceptions

Internal representations of the external world

Help make sense of situations
• Fill in missing pieces
• Help to predict events

Problem with mental models:
• May block recognition of new
opportunities/perspectives
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Stereotyping

Social identity and self-enhancement
reinforce stereotyping through:
 Categorization -- Categorize people
into groups

Homogenization -- Assign similar
traits within a group; different traits to
other groups

Differentiation process -- Assign less
favorable attributes to other groups
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Stereotyping Problems/Solutions

Stereotyping Problems
• Overgeneralizes – doesn’t represent everyone in
the category
• Basis of systemic and intentional discrimination

Overcoming stereotype biases
• Difficult to prevent stereotype activation
• Possible to minimize stereotype application
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Attribution Process
Internal
Attribution
Perception that behavior
is caused by person’s
own motivation or ability
External
Attribution
Perception that behavior is
caused by situation or fate
-- beyond person’s control
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Attribution Errors

Fundamental Attribution Error
• attributing own actions to internal and external
factors and others’ actions to internal factors

Self-Serving Bias
• attributing our successes to internal factors and
our failures to external factors
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Self-Fulfilling Prophecy Cycle
Supervisor
forms
expectations
Employee’s
behavior matches
expectations
Expectations
affect supervisor’s
behavior
Supervisor’s
behavior affects
employee
Self-Fulfilling Prophecy Effect is Strongest...
 ...at the beginning of the relationship (e.g. employee joins the team)
 ...when several people have similar expectations about the person
 ...when the employee has low rather than high past achievement
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Strategies to Improve Perceptions
1.
Awareness of perceptual biases
2.
Improving self-awareness
• Applying Johari Window
3.
Meaningful interaction
• Close, frequent interaction toward a shared goal
• Equal status
• Engaged in a meaningful task
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Know Yourself (Johari Window)
Feedback
Known to Self
Known
to Others
Disclosure
Open
Area Open
Area
Hidden
Area
Hidden
Unknown
to Others
Area
Unknown to Self
Blind
Area Blind
Area
Unknown
Unknown
Area
Area
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Meaningful Interaction at
Herschend Family Entertainment
Herschend Family Entertainment
CEO Joel Manby worked incognito
along-side employees as part of
the television program Undercover
Boss. The experience helped
Manby improve his perceptions of
the workplace as well as his own
leadership behavior.
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Global Mindset

An individual’s ability to perceive, appreciate,
and empathize with people from other cultures,
and to process complex cross-cultural
information.
• awareness of, openness to, and respect for other views
and practices in the world
• capacity to empathize and act effectively across
cultures
• ability to process complex information about novel
environments
• ability to comprehend and reconcile intercultural
matters with multiple levels of thinking
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Developing a Global Mindset
1.
Self-awareness activities – understand own
values, beliefs, attitudes
2.
Compare mental models with people from
other cultures
3.
Cross-cultural training
4.
Immersion in other cultures
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Discussion

Key learnings?
 Next weeks assignments.
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