Transcript PRAWO MIĘDZYNARODOWE JAKO PRAWO WŁAŚCIWE W …

Normatywny wymiar koncepcji jednostki
prezentowany w opiniach odrębnych
sędziego MTS
Antônio Augusto Cançado Trindade
Dr hab. Artur Kozłowski, prof. UWr.
Katedra Prawa międzynarodowego i
Europejskiego
Wydział Prawa, Administracji i Ekonomii
Uniwersytet Wrocławski
Augusto Antonio Cançado Trindade
- Emerytowany profesor prawa międzynarodowego
(University of Brasilia),
- Prezes Międzyamerykańskiego Trybunału Praw
Człowieka (1995-2008),
- Od 2008 r. - sędzia Międzynarodowego Trybunału
Sprawiedliwości w Hadze
Zdania odrębne i indywidualne (MTS)
• Pulp Mills case (Argentina v. Uruguay), 2010
• Advisory Opinion of the International Court of Justice (ICJ) on
Accordance with International Law of the Unilateral Declaration of
Independence in Respect of Kosovo, 2008
• Ahmadou Sadio Diallo case (Republic of Guinea v. Democratic
Republic of the Congo), 2012
• Application of the International Convention on the Elimination of
All Forms of Racial Discrimination (Georgia v. Russian
Federation), 2011
• Advisory Opinion on Judgment No. 2867 of the Administrative
Tribunal of the International Labour Organization upon a Complaint
Filed against the International Fund for Agricultural Development,
2010
- Jurisdictional Immunities of the State (Germany v. Italy :
Greece intervening), 2012
- Questions relating to the Obligation to Prosecute or
Extradite (Belgium v. Senegal), 2012
- Frontier Dispute (Burkina Faso v. Niger), 2013
- Temple of Preah Vihear (Cambodia v. Thailand), 2013
- Whaling in the Antarctic (Australia/New Zealand v. Japan),
2014
THE CONTEMPORANEITY OF THE “DROIT DES GENS”:THE
HUMANIST VISION OF THE INTERNATIONAL LEGAL ORDER
„Since the times of those writings, the world of course has
entirely changed, but human aspirations have remained the
same. The advent, over the twentieth century, of international
organizations (as we came to know them nowadays), has much
contributed, in a highly positive way, to put an end to abuses
against human beings, and gross violations of human
rights and international humanitarian law. The United
Nations, in our times, has sought the prevalence of the dictates
of the universal juridical conscience, particularly when aiming
to secure dignified conditions of living to all peoples, in
particular those subjected to oppression.” (K)
Rola prawników-internacjonalistów
„International legal scholars in those days had more time to devote
themselves to the fulfilment of the needs of the spirit ; their
energies were not yet diverted to, or consumed by, the
distractions of the ages of television and internet. Modernity and
post-modernity, with their characteristic pragmatism, seem to
have obscured the goal of fulfilment of those needs, and to have
left most people today apparently looking far too busy all the
time, doing nothing substantial, certainly not thinking.” (GvR)
Rola prawników internacjonalistów
„For him, international lawyers have a sacred role to
play in the world, and they must strive ever onward to
expand the right of access to justice for all, in all
possible situations, against all obstacles.”
Podstawa koncepcji:
- istota prawa międzynarodowego („new 'jus
gentium'”):
Ius necessarium v. ius voluntarium
Juridical conscience of what is necessary (jus necessarium) stands above
the “free-will” of individual States (jus voluntarium). (A/NZvJ)
„conscience stands above the will.” (GvR)
„The raison d’humanité prevails over the old raison
d’Etat.” (GvR)
Recta ratio
Poglądy „ojców założycieli”
„The droit des gens regulates an international community constituted of
human beings socially organized in States and co-extensive with
humankind (F. de Vitoria); thus conceived, it is solely law which regulates
the relations among members of the universal societas gentium (A. Gentili).
This latter (totus orbis) prevails over the individual will of each State (F. de
Vitoria). There is thus a necessary law of nations, and the droit des gens
reveals the unity and universality of humankind (F. Suárez). The raison
d’Etat has limits, and the State is not an end in itself, but a means to secure
the social order pursuant to the right reason, so as to perfect the societas
gentium which comprises the whole of humankind (H. Grotius). The
legislator is subject to the natural law of human reason (S. Pufendorf), and
individuals, in their association in the State, ought to promote together the
common good (C. Wolff)
Podstawy wyrokowania w ramach MTS
Artykuł 38.
1. Trybunał, którego zadaniem jest orzekać na podstawie prawa
międzynarodowego w sporach, które będą mu przekazane, będzie stosował:
a) konwencje międzynarodowe, bądź ogólne, bądź specjalne, ustalające reguły,
wyraźnie uznane przez państwa spór wiodące;
b) zwyczaj międzynarodowy, jako dowód istnienia powszechnej praktyki,
przyjętej jako prawo;
c) zasady ogólne prawa, uznane przez narody cywilizowane;
d) z zastrzeżeniem postanowień artykułu 59, wyroki sądowe tudzież zdania
najznakomitszych znawców prawa publicznego różnych narodów, jako
środek pomocniczy do stwierdzania przepisów prawnych.
2. Postanowienie niniejsze nie stanowi przeszkody, aby Trybunał mógł orzekać
ex aequo et bono, o ile strony na to zgadzają się.
Istota prawa międzynarodowego –
powszechna sprawiedliwość
„There is nothing extraordinary in this, if we keep in
mind that, in historical perspective, international law
itself precedes the inter-State dimension, and even the
States themselves. What stands above all is the
imperative of universal justice. This is in line with
jusnaturalist thinking. The contemporary understanding
of the principle of universal jurisdiction discloses a new,
wider horizon.”
Recta ratio
„[…] necessary law of the societas gentium has —
pursuant to natural law thinking — “prevailed over
the will of individual States”, thus remaining
“respectful of the human person, to the benefit of the
common good. The precious legacy of natural law
thinking, evoking the natural law of the right
human reason (recta ratio), has never faded away,
and this should be stressed time and time again.”
(DRCvG)
Istota prawa międzynarodowego założenia
• the universalist international law (the new universal jus
gentium of our times)
• „the emancipation of the individual from his own State is,
in my understanding, the greatest legacy of the
consolidation of the international law of human rights”
(BvS)
• „Not only individual rights, but also the corresponding
State duties (of protection, investigation, prosecution,
sanction and reparation) emanate directly from
international law.”
Istota prawa międzynarodowego założenia
• the on-going process of humanization of international law, (pojęcie
państwa)
• principles of humanity and respect for the inherent dignity of the
human person (przyrodzona godność człowieka)
• human conscience, the universal juridical conscience, the ultimate
material source of all law. (źródło prawa)
• „This goal — the realization of justice — can hardly be attained from a
strict State-centered voluntarist perspective, and a recurring search for State
consent.” (GvR) (czynienie sprawiedliwości)
• the individual’s right of access to justice (dostęp do sprawiedliwości)
• the right to reparation for the grave violations of the rights inherent to
him as a human being. (prawo do odszkodowania)
• „it is for the people to determine the destiny of the territory and not
the territory the destiny of the people”, (Dillard, Western Sahara, ICJ)
Istota prawa międzynarodowego – dostęp
do sprawiedliwości (access to justice)
• The right of access to justice lato sensu comprises not only the
formal access to justice (the right to institute legal
proceedings), by means of an effective remedy, but also the
guarantees of the due process of law (with equality of arms,
conforming the proces équitable), up to the judgment (as the
prestation juridictionnelle), with its faithful execution, with the
provision of the reparation due. The realization of justice is in
itself a form of reparation, granting satisfaction to the victim.
In this way those victimized by oppression have their right
to the law (droit au Droit) duly vindicated. (K)
Istota prawa międzynarodowego
(podmiotowość)
• „Individuals are indeed subjects of international law (not
merely “actors”), and whenever legal doctrine departed from
this, the consequences and results were catastrophic.
Individuals are titulaires of rights and bearers of duties which
emanate directly from international law (the jus gentium).
Converging developments, in recent decades, of the
international law of human rights, of international
humanitarian law, and of the international law of refugees,
followed by those of international criminal law, give
unequivocal testimony of this.”
Istota prawa międzynarodowego –
zgoda podmiotów (consent)
• „The Court cannot remain hostage of State consent. It
cannot keep displaying an instinctive and continuing search
for State consent, as it so ostensibly did in its decisions, e.g., in
the East Timor case (Portugal v. Australia) (Judgment of 30
June 1995), and in the case of Armed Activi- ties on the
Territory of the Congo (New Application : 2002) (Democratic
Republic of Congo v. Rwanda) (Judgment of 3 February
2006), to the point of losing sight of the imperative of
realization of justice.” (GvR)
Istota prawa międzynarodowe – zgoda
podmiotów a sfera wartości
• „The outcome of the present case before the ICJ,
concerning the Application of the International
Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of
Racial Discrimination, is the ineluctable consequence
of inaptly and wrongfully giving pride of place to
State consent, even above the fundamental values
at stake, underlying the CERd Convention, which
call for the realization of justice. „ (GvR)
Istota prawa międzynarodowego – zgoda
podmiotów jako domniemanie
• „State consent is but a rule to be observed in the
exercise of compulsory jurisdiction for the realization
of justice. It is a means, not an end, it is a
procedural requirement, not an element of treaty
interpretation ; it surely does not belong to the
domain of the prima principia.” (GvR)
Istota prawa międzynarodowego – zgoda
podmiotów a zasada pacta sunt servanda)
• „Hugo Grotius, for example, acknowledged that mere
consent could never be the ultimate source of legal
obligations ; a contract or a treaty (at domestic or
international law levels) had binding effects on the
parties by virtue of the underlying general rule of
law of pacta sunt servanda.” (GvR)
▫ L. Duguit’s notion of solidarity, H. Krabbe’s sense of
right, H. Kelsen’s (hypothetical) fundamental norm,
A. Verdross’s idea of objective justice)
Istota prawa międzynarodowego – duch
traktatu (living instruments)
• The hermeneutics and proper application of that
treaty cannot be continuously subjected to a
recurring search for State consent. This would
unduly render the letter of the treaty dead, and
human rights treaties are meant to be living
instruments, let alone their spirit. (GvR)
• “living instrument” capable of keeping on
responding to needs of the international community
and new challenges that it faces nowadays in the
present domain. (AvJ)
Podstawowe wartości (fundamental values)
– spoiwo
„Furthermore, it transcends the inter-State dimension, as
it purports to safeguard not the interests of individual
States, but rather the fundamental values shared by
the international community as a whole.” (BvS)
Fundamental (general) principles of law
(prima principia) - znaczenie
„It is not surprising to find that voluntarist-positivists, who have
always attempted to minimize the role of general principles of law,
have always met the opposition of those who sustain the relevance
of those principles, as ensuing from the idea of an objective justice,
and guiding the interpretation and application of legal norms and
rules. This is the position that I sustain. It is the principles of the
inter- national legal system that can best ensure the cohesion and
integrity of the international legal system as a whole. Those
principles are inter-twined with the very foundations of international
law, pointing the way to the universality of this latter, to the benefit
of humankind. Those principles emanate from human
conscience, the universal juridical conscience, the ultimate
material “source” of all law.” (AvU)
Prima principia
„The necessary attention to those principles
brings us closer to the domain of higher human
values, shared by the international community
as a whole. It is, ultimately, those principles that
inform and conform the applicable norms.
Without them, there is ultimately no legal
system at all; hence their utmost importance,
at both international and domestic levels.”
(CvTh)
Prima principia
„After all, it is the fundamental principles that confer
cohesion, coherence and legitimacy, and the ineluctable
axiological dimension, to every legal system. In effect,
general principles permeate the whole international
legal order; they conform their substratum, being
consubstantial to it. They give expression to the
idea of an objective justice, above the will of
individual States. They indicate, at last, the status
conscientiae reached by the international community
as a whole.” (CvTh)
Fundamental (general) principles of law
(prima principia) - przykłady
• „Fundamental principles are those of pacta sunt servanda, of
equality and non-discrimination (at substantive law level), of
equality of arms (égalité des armes — at procedural law level).
Fundamental principle is, furthermore, that of humanity
(permeating the whole corpus juris of international human
rights law, international humanitarian law, and international
refugee law). Fundamental principle is, moreover, that of the
dignity of the human person (laying a foundation of
international human rights law). Fundamental principles of
international law are, in addition, those laid down in Article 2
in the Charter of the United Nations.” (GvR)
Prima principia – wykluczenie zasady
zgody
• These are some of the true prima principia, which confer to the
international legal order its ineluctable axiological dimension.
These are some of the true prima principia, which reveal the
values which inspire the corpus juris of the international
legal order, and which, ultimately, provide its foundations
themselves. Prima principia conforms the substratum of the
international legal order, conveying the idea of an objective
justice (proper of natural law). In turn, State consent does
not belong to the realm of the prima principia ; recourse to
it is a concession of the jus gentium to States, is a rule to be
observed (no one would deny it) so as to render judicial
settlement of international disputes viable.
Ius cogens a wymóg czynienia
sprawiedliwości (realization of justice)
„The realization of justice is of key
importance to the victims, and belongs, in my
understanding, to the domain of jus
cogens. Without it, the right of access to justice
lato sensu, there is no legal system at all.”
(GvDRC)
Ius cogens - rola w systemie prawa
międzynarodowego
• „Identified with general principles of law
enshrining common and superior values shared
by the international community as a whole, jus
cogens ascribes an ethical content to the
new jus gentium, the international law for
humankind. In prohibiting torture in any
circumstances whatsoever, jus cogens exists
indeed to the benefit of human beings,
and ultimately of humankind.” (BvS)
Ius cogens – zobowiązania rezultatu
• „the obligations under a “core human rights
Convention” of the United Nations such as the
Convention against Torture are not simple
obligations of means or conduct : they are, in
my understanding, obligations
necessarily of result, as we are here in the
domain of peremptory norms of international
law, of jus cogens, generating obligations erga
omnes partes under the Convention against
Torture.”
Ius cogens a immunitet
jurysdykcyjny
„Grave breaches of human rights and of
international humanitarian law amount to
breaches of jus cogens, entailing State
responsibility and the right to reparation to the
victims. This is in line with the idea of rectitude
(in conformity with the recta ratio of natural
law).” (K)
Immunitet jurysdykcyjny – tok rozumowania
• „[State immunity] is not to stand in the way of
the realization of justice. The pursuit of justice is to
be preserved as the ultimate goal ; securing justice to
victims encompasses, inter alia, enabling them to seek
and obtain redress for the crimes they suffered. Jus
cogens stands above the prerogative or privilege
of State immunity, with all the consequences
that ensue therefrom, thus avoiding denial of
justice and impunity. (K)
Immunitet jurysdykcyjny państwa – tok
rozumowania
• When a State pursues a criminal policy of
murdering segments of its own population, and
of the population of other States, it cannot, later
on, place itself behind the shield of sovereign
immunities, as these latter were never conceived
for that purpose.
• International crimes perpetrated by States are
not acts jure gestionis, nor acts jure imperii ;
they are crimes, delicta imperii, for which there
is no immunity. (K)
Immunitet jurysdykcyjny państwa (tok
rozumowania)
• In case of grave violations of human rights and
of international humanitarian law, the direct
access of the individuals concerned to the
international jurisdiction is thus fully justified,
to vindicate those rights, even against their own
State. (K)
Immunitet jurysdykcyjny – tok rozumowania
„The State’s duty to provide reparation to
individual victims of grave violations of human
rights and of international humanitarian law is a
duty under customary international law and
pursuant to a fundamental general principle of
law.” (K)
Immunitet jurysdykcyjny – tok rozumowania
„In effect, to admit the removal of State
immunity in the realm of trade relations, or in
respect of local personal tort (e.g., in traffic
accidents), and at the same time to insist on
shielding States with immunity, in cases of
international crimes — marked by grave
violations of human rights and of international
humanitarian law — in pursuance of State
(criminal) policies, amounts to a juridical
absurdity.” (K)
Immunitet jurysdykcyjny - wniosek
„My firm position is that there is no State
immunity for international crimes, for grave
violations of human rights and of international
humanitarian law.” (K)
Integralność terytorialna a prawo narodów
do samostanowienia
„No State can invoke territorial integrity in order to commit
atrocities (such as the practices of torture, and ethnic
cleansing, and massive forced displacement of the
population), nor perpetrate them on the assumption of State
sovereignty, nor commit atrocities and then rely on a claim of
territorial integrity notwithstanding the sentiments and
ineluctable resentments of the “people” or “population”
victimized.”
The basic lesson is clear: no State can use territory to
destroy the population. Such atrocities amount to an
absurd reversal of the ends of the State, which was
created and exists for human beings, and not vice-versa.
(K)
Integralność terytorialna a prawo narodów
do samostanowienia
„The Government of a State which incurs grave
and systematic violations of human rights ceases
to represent the people or population
victimized.” (K)
Wykładnia prawa
• The position and the thesis I sustain in the present dissenting
opinion is that, when the ICJ is called upon to settle an interState dispute on the basis of a human rights treaty, it is bound
to secure a proper interpretation and application of that treaty,
bearing in mind its special nature and its substance, in its
entirety, and the fact that it is intended to protect rights of the
human person at intra-State level. The proper interpretation of
human rights treaties (in the light of the canons of treaty
interpretation of Articles 31-33 of the two Vienna Conventions
on the Law of Treaties, of 1969 and 1986) covers, in my
understanding, their substantive as well as procedural
provisions, (GvR)
Krytyka koncepcji
- Sollen v. Sein
- Koncepcja a praktyka państw