Transcript Infancy

Infancy
Birth to 1 year
What roles do nature
and nurture play in the
development of an
infant?
• Babies are born with
certain innate
behaviors and
responses. Some of
these behaviors begin
as normal newborn
reflexes, most of which
disappear within the
first year. However, the
behaviors aren’t gone
for good; they merely
morph into childhood
and adult behaviors.
Nature Vs. Nurture
Stage 1 - Newborn
• Newborn stage is the first 4 weeks or first month of life. It is a transitional period
from intrauterine life to extra uterine environment.
Physical growth
They loose 5 % to 10 % of weight by 3-4 days after birth as result of :
 Withdrawal of hormones from mother.
 Loss of excessive extra cellular fluid.
 Passage of meconium (feces) and urine.
 Limited food intake.
• Boys average Ht = 50 cm
• Girls average Ht = 49 cm
• Normal range for both (47.5- 53.75 cm)
Head circumference
33-35 cm
Head is ¼ total body length
Skull has 2 fontanels (anterior & posterior)
Size of the Infant
• Physical development
• At birth, the newborn’s brain is 25% of its adult weight
• Body weight is only 5% of its adult weight
• Newborns enter the world with an estimated 100 billion neurons
• After birth, the brain continues to develop rapidly
• The number of dendrites increases dramatically during the first two years of
life
• The axons of many neurons acquire myelin:
• the white, fatty covering that increases a neuron’s communication speed
• Just like adults, newborns come in a range of healthy sizes. Most full-term babies (born
between 37 and 40 weeks) weigh somewhere between 5 pounds 8 ounces (2,500
grams) and 8 pounds, 13 ounces (4,000 grams)
Size of an Infant depends on many things
-
Size of Parents
Multiple Births
Birth Order
Gender
Mother’s Health
Nutrition during pregnancy
Baby’s Health
Reflexes
• Grasping Reflex- a response to a touch on the
palm of the hand.
• Rooting Reflex- If an alert newborn is touched
anywhere around the mouth he/she
will move its head toward the source
of the touch
• Sucking- In infancy, the sucking reflex is essential for
eating, but it’s also a way for a baby to comfort himself.
Ever wonder why older kids suck their thumbs and why
some adults chew pens or smoke? They’re just
soothing their nerves. (Freud’s Oral Fixation)
Reflexes
- Startling. Every now and then, an infant
will “startle”—that is, he’ll tense up, thrust his
arms out to the side, and make a fearful face,
almost as though he’s falling. Adults have a
similar type of reaction when
they’re faced with true danger.
• Babies reflexively withdraw from painful stimuli.
• They pull up their legs and arch their backs in
response to sudden sounds or bumps.
• As children develop, many reflexes such as rooting and sucking disappear.
• Other reflexes such as elimination of wastes, come under voluntary control.
- Gaze aversion. How can you tell when a baby has had enough of your goo-googaa-gaa-ing? He’ll avoid making eye contact with you, a behavior that’s referred to
as gaze aversion. Surprise, surprise—adults do the same thing to indicate boredom
or displeasure.
Vision
•
In addition, the newborn’s
senses – vision, hearing, smell,
and touch – are keenly attuned
to people, helping the infant
quickly learn to differentiate
between the mother and other
humans
• Vision is the least developed
sense at birth
• Optimal viewing distance for the
newborn is about 6-12 inches
• The perfect distance for a nursing
baby to easily focus on his
mother’s face and make eye
contact
• 5 to 10 week old babies look longest at
patterns that are fairly complex.
• They are interested in the variety and
complexity of the pattern.
• Eyesight is not fully developed at this age.
• Age 15 to 20 weeks, patterns begin to
matter.
• Babies tend to stare longer at face-like
patterns.
• This occurs when an infant has had more
experiences with people.
• Vision is only one type of perception.
• The newborn’s world is not a
blooming, buzzing confusion.
Newborns can see and may be
able to differentiate red and white,
but an adult-like colour system
does not appear until two months
of age. Infants only two days old
looked longer at patterned stimuli,
such as faces, than at single-colour
discs.
Perceptual Systems
• All three perceptual constancies
such as size, shape and
brightness are present in infants
by three months of age. Infants
as young as six months have
depth perception. Infants
develop expectations about
future events in their world by
the time they are three months
of age.
Hearing
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Newborns respond with increased alertness to the sound of human voices
Hearing is much better developed at birth than is their eyesight.
They respond more to high-pitched sounds than to low-pitched ones.
They seem to be soothed by the sounds of someone singing softly or speaking
in a low-pitched tone.
Skin Colour
• A baby's skin coloring can vary greatly, depending on
the baby's age, race or ethnic group, temperature, and
whether or not the baby is crying. Skin color in babies
often changes with both the environment and health.
Birth Defects
• Birth defects are defined as abnormalities of structure,
function, or body metabolism that are present at birth. Major
birth defects are abnormalities that lead to developmental or
physical disabilities or require medical or surgical treatment.
• Birth defects can be caused by genetic, environmental, or
unknown factors. For most birth defects, the cause is believed
to be an interaction of a number of genetic and environmental
factors.
• EXAMPLES:
SIDS (Crib Death)
• Sudden infant death syndrome is the unexpected, sudden
death of a child under age one in which an autopsy does
not show an explainable cause of death.
• Unknown causes, which makes it the most frightening
• Infant shows no sign of pain/struggle
• Most deaths due to SIDS occur between 2 and 4 months of
age
• one out of every 2,000 in Canada each year
• 3 Babies a week are affected by SIDS every week in
Canada
RISK Factors
• African-American infants are twice as likely and
Native American infants are about three times
more likely to die of SIDS than Caucasian
infants. More boys than girls fall victim to SIDS.
•
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smoking, drinking, or drug use during pregnancy
poor prenatal care
prematurity or low birth weight
mothers younger than 20
tobacco smoke exposure following birth
overheating from excessive sleepwear and bedding
stomach sleeping
Physical development
Physical development
•
The basic sequence of motor skill development during
infancy is universal, but average ages can be a little
deceptive
•
Each infant has his or her own:
1. genetically programmed timetable of physical maturation and
2. developmental readiness to master different motor skills
• Like rolling over, sitting up, and standing
Physical Development
Cephalocaudal- means to develop from
head to tail. This happens in the first 2 years
of life, primarily
Examples: brain/head development earlier
coordination than in arms and legs; head
larger relative to rest of body, lower parts of
body must do more growing to reach adult
size.
Proximal Distal- means to develop from the
inside out (not internal, but closest to the
center)
Example brain/spinal cord (central nervous
system) and organ systems in trunk develop
before arms and legs.
•At 2 months
•Hold head erects
in mid-position.
•Turn from side
back.
•At 3 months
• Hold head erects
and steady
•Open or close
hand loosely
•Hold object put in
hand
• At 4 months
•Sit with adequate
support.
•Roll over from
front to back.
•Hold head erect
and steady while
in sitting position.
•Bring hands
together in midline
and plays with
fingers.
•Grasp objects
with both hands.
• At 5 Months
•Balance head
well when sitting.
•Site with slight
support.
•Pull feet up to
mouth when
supine.
•Grasp objects
with whole hand
(Rt. or Lt.).
•Hold one object
while looking at
another
•At 6 Months
•Sit alone
briefly.
•Turn
completely over
( abdomen to
abdomen ).
•Lift chest and
upper abdomen
when prone.
•Hold own
bottle.
•At 7 Months
•Sit alone.
•Hold cup.
•Imitate simple acts
of others.
•At 8 Months
•Site alone steadily.
•Drink from cup
with assistance.
•Eat finger food
that can be held in
one hand.
•At 9 Months
•Rise to sitting
position alone.
•Crawl (i.e., pull
body while in prone
position).
•Hold one bottle with
good hand-mouth
coordination
•At 10 Months
•Creep well (use
hands and legs).
•Walk but with
help.
•Bring the hands
together.
•At 11 Months
•Walk holding on
furniture.
•Stand erect with
minimal support
•At 12 Months
•Stand-alone for
variable length of
time.
•Site down from
standing position
alone.
•Walk in few steps
with help or alone
(hands held at
shoulder height for
balance).
•Pick up small bits of
food and transfers
them to his mouth
Importance of Nutrition:
Stunted Growth and Poor Immunity: Without the right
nutrition, infants and young children are more likely to
suffer from stunted growth. Up to 27 percent of children
under age 5 in developing countries are underweight, and
being underweight can lead to a lifetime of short stature.
Brain Development: What you feed your child may
influence her brain development. According to 2008
research published in the "Archives of Pediatrics &
Adolescent Medicine," infants and children who receive
poor nutrition are less likely to do well on learning, thinking
and memory tests when they become adults.
Continued
Overweight: Poor nutrition can also mean getting too
much of the wrong types of food. The risks start as early
as infancy. Babies who are overfed and gain excessive
weight may be at greater risk of weight problems when
they become children.
Habit Setting: Small children can't understand the
significance of proper nutrition, but left to their own
devices, they will choose whatever is tasty whether or not
it is good for them. Children who don't get the right
amount of the right nutrients before they enter school may
have already established habits that set them up for a
lifetime of unhealthy eating
Early Childhood Development
Intellectual Cognitive Development
Object Permanence- This is a giant step in intellectual development. The child
realizes that people and objects are independent of his/her action. This new
scheme, might be expressed: “Things continue to exist even though I cannot see
or touch them.” (They figure out Peek-a-boo)
Representational thought- Now children can represent things in their mind.
“Thinking with actions”
What is the process of cognitive
development during infancy?
• According to Piaget, sensorimotor intelligence
develops through six, successive stages, each
characterized by a somewhat different way of
understanding the world:
Birth to 2 yrs
Sensorimotor
Uses senses and motor skills, items known by
use; Object permanence
2 - 7 yrs
Pre-operational
Symbolic thinking, language used; egocentric
thinking, imagination/ experience grow, child decenters
7 - 11 yrs
Concrete operational
Logic applied, objective/rational interpretations;
conservation, numbers, ideas, classifications
11 yrs on
Formal operational
Thinks abstractly, hypothetical ideas; ethics,
politics, social/moral issues explored
Kohlberg’s Theory
• Moral development
• Gilligan critical of Kohlberg’s research
results – had her own theory
• Morality as Individual Survival
• Morality as Self-Sacrifice
• Morality as Equality
Kohlberg’s theory of moral development
Level I:
Preconventional
moral reasoning
Level II:
Conventional moral
reasoning
Level III:
Postconventional
moral reasoning
Stage 1
“might makes
right”
Punishment/obedience
orientation: self-interest
Stage 2
“look out for
number one”
Instrumental/relativist
orientation: quid pro quo
Stage 3
“good girl,
nice boy”
Proper behavior for the social
approval
Stage 4
“law and order” Proper behavior of the dutiful
citizen, obey laws
Stage 5
“social
contract”
Mutual benefit to all, obey
society’s rules
Stage 6
“universal
ethical
principles”
Defend right/wrong, not just
majority, all life is sacred
(reflective)
Intellectual Cognitive Development
Schemes- Constructions, or plans for knowing and
understanding the world.
Assimilations- We try to fit the world into our scheme.
Accommodations- We change our scheme to fit the
characteristics of the world.
Separation Anxiety why does It happen?
• Separation anxiety is a normal emotional stage of
development that starts when babies begin to understand
that things and people exist even when they're not present
– something called "object permanence.“
• Babies can show signs of separation anxiety as early as 6
or 7 months, but the crisis age for most babies peaks
between 10 to 18 months.
How do infants learn to speak and
understand a language?
• What was your first word?
Language
• At birth: From the very start, the baby is learning the
power of communication: He cries, you make him feel
better. Your response to his noise-making lays the
foundation for language.
• At 2 months old: The baby can respond to your
cues. So when you say sweet nothings while looking
into his eyes, he can gaze back and coo in return.
He's making a connection between what he hears
and what he does with his mouth. And the highpitched, singsong way you probably speak keeps
your baby riveted so he can start to decipher
sentences and words.
Language continued
At 6 to 8 months old: Get ready for all the adorable babbling!
Your baby makes vowel sounds now, and will add
consonants, too. Within months he may imitate the sounds
he hears when you speak.
Encouraging baby talk
Give everything a name. At bath time, for instance, say,
"This is the shampoo," as you reach for it. Your baby will
build her vocabulary.
Read together. At first she won't understand what you're
saying, but you'll stimulate her senses and build a lifelong
love of books.
• 1-2 months: coos
SPEECH MILESTONES
• 2-6 months: laughs and squeals
• 8-9 months babbles: mama/dada as sounds
• 10-12 months: “mama/dada specific
• 18-20 months: 20 to 30 words – 50%
understood by strangers
• 22-24 months: two word sentences, >50 words,
75% understood by strangers
• 30-36 months: almost all speech understood by
strangers
• The infant usually progresses into saying labels or commands, that
sound like words ( Baa (ball))
• Late in the first year, the strings of babbles begin to sound more like the
language that the child hears. Children imitate the speech of their
parents or siblings. This is how the children learn to speak in their native
language.
• By the time a child is two they have a vocabulary of about 50 words, and
have began expressing themselves by joining words together. From
about 18 months to 5 years of age children are adding 5-10 words a day
to their vocabulary
• Telegraphic speech- they leave out words but get the same message
across.
• Be silly. Games like "so big" or peekaboo reinforce listening, turn-taking, and
imitation -- prerequisites for conversation.
• Sing. Babies naturally love music, and singing is a great way to introduce a
range of sounds.
• Babble back. When your baby says "goo goo," say something similar in return,
like "Hey, boo boo, how are you?" The play on sounds makes language fun.
Before you babble on, pause to let her "talk" so she gets a feel for the rhythm of
real conversation.
• Your child will probably say his first word right around his first birthday (what a
nice present for Mom!). Most early words are repeated: You say "spaghetti" and
she says "geddy." By 16 months, she'll be able to say a handful of words -- an
average of 50 for girls and 30 for boys. (Boys tend to develop speech about a
month or two later.)
Temperament
and
Personality
What do Temperament and Personality
mean?
- Researchers who study adult personality have also
searched for the basic temperamental dimensions that
underlie personality in humans everywhere. Through a
series of statistical calculations they have found what
are called the “big five” dimensions of temperament:
• extroversion: the tendency to be outgoing, assertive, and
active
• agreeableness: the tendency to be kind, helpful, and
easygoing
• conscientiousness: the tendency to be organized, deliberate,
and conforming
• neuroticism: the tendency to be anxious, moody, and selfpunishing
• openness: the tendency to be imaginative, curious, artistic and
welcoming of new experiences
Basic temperaments of babies
• Because temperament is fundamental in determining
the kind of individuals we become and how we interact
with others, many researchers have set out to
describe and measure the various dimensions of
temperament. According to the researcher's initial
findings, in the first days and months of life, babies
differ in nine characteristics:
• Activity level: Some babies are active. They kick a lot in the
uterus before they are born, they move around a great deal in
their bassinets and as toddlers, they are nearly always running.
• Rhythmicity: Some babies have regular cycles of activity.
They eat, sleep, and defecate on schedule almost from birth.
• Approach-withdrawal: Some babies delight in everything
new; others withdraw from every new situation.
• Adaptability: Some babies adjust quickly to change. Others
are unhappy at every disruption of their normal routine.
• Threshold of responsiveness: Some babies seem to sense
every sight, sound and touch. For instance, they awaken at a slight
noise or turn away from a distant light. Others seem blissfully
unaware, even of bright lights, loud street noises, or wet diapers.
• Quality of mood: Some babies seem constantly happy, smiling
at almost everything. Others seem chronically unhappy, they are
ready to protest at any moment.
• Distractibility: All babies fuss when they are hungry but some
will stop if someone gives them a pacifier or sings them a song.
Others will keep fussing. Similarly, some babies can easily be
distracted from a fascinating but dangerous object and diverted to
a safer plaything. Others are more single-minded, refusing to be
distracted.
• Attention span: Some babies play happily with one toy for a
long time. Others quickly drop one activity for another.
TEMPERAMENT
Characteristic ways of responding to the environment
that vary from infant to infant
(Data from Thomas, et al., 1970)
 Attachment: forming
emotional bonds
DEVELOPMENT
DURING
 Attachment – the
emotional
INFANCY
AND
CHILDHOOD
bond that forms between
infant and caregivers,
especially the mother
 According to attachment theory,
an infant’s ability to thrive
physically and psychologically
depends in part on the quality of
attachment
 In all cultures, the emotional
bond between between infants
and caregivers is an important
relationship:
 although there are cultural
differences in how the attachment
relationship is conceptualized and
encouraged
 Infants can form multiple
attachments
 Depending on the parents, infants can form secure or insecure attachments
DEVELOPMENT DURING
 Secure attachment – occurs when parents are consistently warm, responsive, and
INFANCY
CHILDHOOD
sensitive to their AND
infant’s needs
 Insecure attachment – may develop when an infant’s parents are neglectful, inconsistent,
or insensitive to the infant’s moods or behaviors
The most commonly used procedure to measure
attachment, called the “Strange Situation”,
was developed by Ainsworth. This is
typically used with infants between 1-2
years old
1. The mother stays with the child for a few
moments,
2. She then departs, leaving the child with the
stranger
3. After a few minutes, mother returns, spends
a few minutes in the room,
4. She then leaves, and returns again
Psychologists assess attachment by
observing the infant’s behavior toward
the mother during the Strange Situation
procedure
 The securely attached infant will use the mother as a “secure” base from which to
explore the new environment, periodically returning to her side;
 Will show distress when mother leaves and will greet her warmly when she returns.
 The mothers easily soothe securely attached babies
 An insecurely attached infant is less likely to explore the environment, even when the
mother is present and may appear either very anxious or completely indifferent
 Such infants tend to ignore or avoid their mothers when they are present
 Some become extremely distressed when the mother leaves the room and, when reunited,
 they are hard to soothe and:
 may resist their mothers’ attempt to comfort them
CHILD ABUSE AND NEGLECT
 Why do some parents abuse or neglect their children?

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

Stress—particularly the stress of unemployment and poverty
A history of child abuse in at least one parent’s family of origin
Acceptance of violence as a way of coping with stress
Lack of attachment to the child
Substance abuse
Rigid attitudes about child rearing
 Children who are abused run a higher risk of developing psychological problems than
children who did not grow up in an abusive environment.
 These children are more likely to suffer from a variety of psychological problems such
as anxiety, depression and low self-esteem.
 As adults, they are more likely to act in violent ways toward their dates or spouses.
 Child abuse tends to run in families.
 Children often adopt their parents’ strict ideas about discipline.
 Abused children may come to see severe punishment as normal.
 Not all people who were abused as children will in turn become abusers themselves.
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SELF-ESTEEM
 Self-esteem is the value or worth that people attach to themselves.
 Self-esteem helps to protect people against the stresses and struggles of life.
 High self-esteem gives people the confidence to know that they can overcome their
difficulties.
 What factors influence self-esteem?
 Secure attachment
 Young children who are securely attached to their parents are more likely to have high selfesteem.
 The way parents react to their children
 Children with high self-esteem tend to be closer to their parents and their parents are involved in
their lives.
 They teach and expect appropriate behavior and encourage them to become competent
individuals
Chapter 10
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