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Theoretical Framework
Science & Values
Chris Borgmeier, PhD
Portland State University
Questions
• How should special educators make decisions about
choosing practices to support student needs?
• Why are research, theoretical frameworks and data
each important for guiding decision making and
choosing professional practices in special education?
• How does research inform practice?
• How do I identify research based practices when I need
interventions for a student challenge?
Research Based
Theoretical Framework
• What if there isn’t really a research-based
curriculum or intervention for the individual
needs of my student?
– No random control trials; no group research
– Look to single case research
• Application of Research Based Principles
• Grounding in a sound theoretical framework
Learning Theories
Behaviorist & Constructivist
Constructivism as a Learning Theory
• “Discovery Learning” or “Experiential Learning” learning involves constructing one's own
knowledge from one's own experiences
• Promotes a student's free exploration within a
given framework or structure
• Teacher acts as a facilitator who encourages
students to discover principles for themselves
and to construct knowledge by working to solve
realistic problems.
Constructivism: What the researchers say
• Based on the results of their research, these authors do
not support the idea of allowing novices to interact
with constructivist learning environments contexts
– Paas, 1992; Moreno & Mayer, 1999; Mousavi, Low, &
Sweller, 1995; Chandler and Sweller, 1992; Sweller &
Cooper, 1985; Cooper & Sweller, 1987
• Ill-structured learning environments rely on the learner
to discover problem solutions. Novices should be
taught with "well-structured" learning environments.
– Jonassen, 1997
Constructivism: What the researchers say
• After a half century of advocacy associated with instruction using
minimal guidance, there appears no body of research supporting
the technique. In so far as there is any evidence from controlled
studies, it almost uniformly supports direct, strong instructional
guidance rather constructivist-based minimal guidance during the
instruction of novice to intermediate learners. Even for students
with considerable prior knowledge, strong guidance while learning
is most often found to be equally effective as unguided approaches.
Not only is unguided instruction normally less effective; there is
also evidence that it may have negative results when student
acquire misconceptions or incomplete or disorganized knowledge”
– Kirschner, P.A., Sweller, J. & Clark, R.E. (2006). Why minimal guidance
during instruction does not work: An analysis of the failure of
constructivist, discovery, problem-based, experiential, and inquiry
based teaching. Educational Psychologist, 41, 75-86.a
Behavioral or Learning Theory
Assumptions of Behavioral Theory
• Behavior is Learned
• Focus on the observable and measurable
• Behavior is related to the environment in which it occurs
• Behavior serves a purpose
• Focus on how environmental variables can be manipulated to effect
changes in behavior & learning
• Measure student outcomes & learning
• Educational approaches that have emerged from behaviorism
include:
–
–
–
–
–
–
applied behavior analysis
Functional assessment
curriculum based measurement and progress monitoring, and
Direct instruction have emerged from this model
Discrete Trial Training
Modeling, shaping, fading, reinforcement, contract, extinction, etc.
Conceptual Foundations
Behaviorism
Laws of Behavior
ABA
Applied Behavioral Technology
Effective
Instruction
PBS
Social Validity
RTI & SW-PBIS
All Students
Foundations of Behavior
Behavior
• Identify the Target Behavior
– Desired Behavior or Non-desired Behavior
• Behavior must be identified so that it is
observable & measurable
– Define the behavior so that someone else could
go into the room and both of you could measure
the behavior without question
Operational Definition
Behavioral Definition: Observable & Measurable definition
EXAMPLES
What the Behavior Looks Like
NON-EXAMPLES
What the Behavior Does NOT Look Like
Provide a range of examples
Provide a range of non-examples
•try to provide examples that delineate
the boundaries of what the behavior
looks like
• try to provide examples that delineate
the boundaries of what the behavior does
not looks like
Operational Definition
Hands, Feet and Objects to Self: Student does not touch
other students with their hands, feet or objects, with intent
to hurt, bother or get peers attention at inappropriate
times
EXAMPLES
What the Behavior Looks Like
NON-EXAMPLES
What the Behavior Does NOT Look Like
Student is:
• Sitting at desk working with feet on floor
and hands on work
•Standing in line with hands at side and
without bumping into other students
•Sitting on floor and gently nudges
another student by accident
•Teacher asks students to hand out books
to class
•Playing tag at recess and gently tags
another person to be it
Student is:
•Kicking peer under the desk or poking
the peer to get their attention
•Hold on to another students arm so they
can’t get away from them in line
•Purposefully run into or push a student
sitting next to you on the floor
•Throws a pencil at another student when
the student needs a pencil
•Chases a peer during recess and touches
them after the peer asks you to stop
ABC’s of Understanding Behavior
Operant Conditioning
• What happens before (A or antecedent) the
behavior occurs?
– Trigger
• What is the behavior (B)?
• What happens after (C or consequence) the
behavior occurs?
– Response or Outcome of the Behavior
ABC
Antecedents
What triggers the behavior?
• What happens immediately preceding the
problem/target behavior?
• What triggers the behavior, be specific...
–
–
–
–
What activity?
What peers?
What tasks?
Describe in detail
• If you wanted to set up the student to engage in the
problem behavior, what would you have do?
Consequence What
is the response to the behavior?
• What happens immediately following the behavior?
–
–
–
–
How do peers respond?
How do the adults respond?
What are the consequences for the student?
How many times out of 10 do each of these responses
occur following the problem behavior?
• What is the student gaining as a result of engaging in
the behavior?
– How is it paying off for the student?
Learning
ABC
Student Learns through repeated experience, that
under these specific Antecedent conditions, if I
engage in this Behavior, I can expect this
Consequence
Learning & ABC
A
B
Student is asked
to do a math
problem in front of
the class
Student tries to do
the problem at the
board, but
struggles
NEXT DAY
Student is asked
to do a math
problem in front of
the class
What
happens
today???
C
Peers laugh at
student and one
says aloud, “that
one is so easy”
Reinforcing Consequence
AB C
Rewarding or
Desired
Consequence
If the consequence is rewarding/desired, the subject
learns the behavior is functional for getting what
they want
Behavior Increases in the Future
Punishing Consequence
ABC
Punishing or
Undesired
Consequence
If the consequence is punishing/undesired, the subject
learns the behavior is not functional for getting what
they want
Behavior Decreases in the Future
ABC’s of Instruction
Across the Continuum of Learners
Instruction
Antecedent
Behavior
Consequence
Prompt
Student Response
Teacher Feedback
Mainstream “What is the capital of
Sweden?”…. Bueller, Bueller
Student thinks
“Stockholm”
Sporadic verbal praise
Student self reinforcement “I
got it right!”
Direct
Instruction
Reading
Showing card with word “cat”
– saying “this word is ‘cat’,
what word?”
“cat”
Yes – that word is cat;
“c-ar”
No, this word is cat
Significant
Disabilities
“Choosing food at lunch”
Most to least prompting
-physical guidance
Student Response
(hand over hand)
-Physical
-Gestural
DIFFERENCES across Continuum
-verbal
- # of trials to mastery
- explicitness of instruction
Reinforce response
-tangible reinforcer
-verbal praise
-access to natural reinforcer
“get lunch”
Reinforcing Consequence
AB C
Rewarding or
Desired
Consequence
If the consequence is rewarding/desired, the subject
learns the behavior is functional for getting what
they want
Behavior Increases in the Future
A-B-C
A-B-C
A-B-C
A-B-C
A-B-C
A-B-C
Instruction &
Support
Student
Independence
Phases of Learning/Teaching
Alberto & Troutman, 2009
• Acquisition – student’s ability to perform a newly learned
skill/response to some criterion of accuracy
• Fluency – describe the rate at which students accurately
perform a response; learner begins to build speed & efficiency
in use of the skill or knowledge (but may not remember
skill/knowledge over time without prompting)
• Maintenance – student is able to recall & use the skill/
knowledge with a high rate of accuracy over more extended
spans of time with limited review
• Generalization – student generalizes skill or knowledge to
novel contexts and as prior knowledge for learning new
information
Acquisition Phase
• Acquisition – student’s ability to perform a newly
learned skill/response to some criterion of
accuracy
– Strong use of reinforcers
– Regular prompting & error correction
– Modeling & Guided practice
• Model-Lead-Test/Model-Prompt-Check/I do-We do-You do
• Important to have critical background knowledge
& prerequisite skills
A-B-C
Fluency
• Following skill acquisition -- focus on
improving the RATE at which the learner
performs the behavior
• What is an appropriate rate required for functional
performance?
– Reading, bus money, small talk, etc.
• Teaching Strategies
– Frequent structured practice
– Fading to intermittent reinforcement
A-B-C
Maintenance
• Once learners can perform a skill fluently, it is
important to maintain the skill over time
– What
• Teaching Strategies
– Make sure you are teaching functional/useful skills
– Student access to natural reinforcers
– Over-learning
– Delayed reinforcement
A-B-C
Generalization
• Learners can use skill across settings other than the initial
instructional conditions
– Train for generalization v. Train & Hope
• Teaching Strategies
– Vary training across (Antecedent stimuli):
• Settings
• People
• Signals/Prompt types
–
–
–
–
Teach the universe of examples
Intermittent reinforcement w/ link to natural reinforcers (Consequences)
Reinforce occurrences of generalization
Reinforce response across settings
A-B-C
Reinforcement Continuum & Phases of
Teaching
Stages of Learning/Teaching
Acquisition

Fluency  Maintenance
Continuous

Intermittent…………fading…
Rates of Review & Reinforcement
Continuous – provide reinforcement/corrective feedback on every occurrence
of behavior – reinforcement may be tangible paired w/ verbal praise
Intermittent – fade tangible, continue w/ intermittent verbal praise
Can usually anticipate that academic success or social benefits
will continue to maintain desired behavior.
A-B-C
A-B-C
A-B-C
Acquisition
Student
Instruction & Fluency
Maintenance Independence
Support
Generalization