Transcript Document

HISTORY AND CONTEXT:
MEXICAN SPANISH
• Texas War of Independence, 1836
• Mexican-American War, 1848
• Mexican Revolution, 1910-1920
• ‘Bracero’ Programme, 1942
CUBAN SPANISH
• Spanish-American War, 1898
• Cuban Revolution, 1959
• Mariel boatlift, 1980
• ‘Balseros’, 1994
PUERTO RICAN SPANISH
• Spanish-American War, 1898
• 50,000 immigrate to US mainland, 19451955
CENTRAL AMERICA POLITICAL TURMOIL , 1980S
•
E.g. El Salvador Civil War
DEMOGRAPHICS OF THE UNITED STATES
(FOCUSING ON ITS HISPANIC POPULATION):
A LITTLE BIT OF HISTORY…
Earliest origins of the language date back to the 16 th/17th centuries with colonization efforts
Many Southern states, especially in the SW, were under the Spanish Empire, and there were efforts to conquer
areas of the United States further north
Mexico gained independence from Spanish Empire in 1821
Treaty of Guadalupe signed in Feb 1848
Spanish Influence still clearly visible in these parts
Puerto Rico 1898 (Citizenship in 1917)
Large immigration movement from Mexico, Cuba, etc. to America since
19TH CENTURY
MEXICAN CESSION: TREATY OF GUADALUPE
HIDALGO
LASTING EFFECTS & CONSEQUENCES
Arizona
Spanglish
California
Colorado
• Various areas of some US cities have an
Florida
exceptionally high Hispanic population, with
Montana
areas such as Washington Heights (NY) and
Nevada
Little Havana (Miami)
New Mexico
Texas
Utah
• Common enough site in cities but these
places, among others, are noted for having
Spanish signs
RECENT POPULATION TRENDS
http://www.census.gov/prod/cen2010/briefs/c2010br-02.pdf
http://www.census.gov/geo/www/mapGallery/images/hispanic.jp
g
http://popcenter.uchicago.edu/census_conference/ResearchNews.shtml
FEW INTERESTING NOTES FROM THE 2002
CENSUS
66.9% Mexican, 8.6% Puerto Rico, 3.7% Cuba, 14.3% other C&S America, 6.5% other Hispanic
“Hispanics are more likely than non-Hispanic Whites to live inside central cities of metropolitan
areas”
45.6% of Hispanics, compared to 21.1% of non-Hispanic whites
Just 8.7% of Hispanics live outside metropolitan areas, compared to 22.1% of non-Hispanic
whites
The concentration within cities can help them to raise awareness and keep visible so that the
Spanish language naturally gains prominence form State authorities
http://www.globalvillage.us/census2002.pdf
THE FUTURE OF SPANISH IN THE USA
1. If migration of Spanish speakers will continue, the status of Spanish as
the USA’s second language (first in some places) will be guaranteed.
1. Ethnic and linguistic assimilation to Anglo American culture will continue
to increase.
Table with row headers in columns A and
column headers in row 3.
Hispanic population in the United States:
1970 to 2050
Percent
Source of
Hispanic
Hispanic of
Data and
Population
the total
Year
(in millions) population
Census
1970
9.6
4.7
1980
14.6
6.4
1990
22.4
9.0
2000
35.3
12.5
Projections
2010*
47.8
15.5
2020*
59.7
17.8
2030*
73.0
20.1
2040*
87.7
22.3
2050*
102.6
24.4
Footnote:
*Projected population as of July 1
SOURCE: U.S. Census Bureau, 1970,
1980, 1990, and 2000 Decennial Censuses;
Population Projections, July 1, 2010 to July
1, 2050.
Internet Release Date: February 08, 2008
‘SPANGLISH’
•
Code-switching / lexical borrowing
•
Ambiguous connotations
“Spanish characterized by numerous borrowing from English.”
American Heritage Dictionary
“A type of Spanish contaminated by English words and forms of expressions,
spoken in Latin America.”
Oxford English Dictionary
•
Can be use positively as a badge of bicultural identity
•
Can be used to disparage US Latinos
SPANISH IN THE MEDIA
•
Significant presence in the media
730 radio stations; 200 television station; 1851 print publications (2007)
• In some places Spanish televisions and radio has a greater audience than
English counterparts.
• Demand for information in Spanish regardless of fluency in English
LINGUISTIC LEGISLATION IN THE USA
SPANISH AS A MINORITY LANGUAGE
NATIONAL LEGISLATION
“English Only” ?
“Language of Government” ?
“English Language Empowerment Act of 1996'‘
April 27, 1981
Proposing an amendment to the Constitution of
the United States establishing English as the
official language of the United States.
`Article -`Section 1. The English language shall be the
official language of the United States.
`Section 2. Neither the United States nor any
State shall make or enforce any law which
requires the use of any language other than
English.
Source: The Library of Congress, Thomas
`Sec. 161. The official language of the Federal
Government is English.
Sec. 165. (a) Fluency.--It has been the longstanding
national belief that full citizenship in the United States
requires fluency in English. English is the language of
opportunity for all immigrants to take their rightful
place in society in the United States.
`Sec. 167.
``(1) to prohibit a Member of Congress or an employee
or official of the Federal Government, while
performing official business, from communicating
orally with another person in a language other than
English;
…(4) to discourage or prevent the use of languages
other than English in any nonofficial capacity.
MOST RECENT LEGISLATIVE ATTEMPTS (1)
“National Language Act 2011”
March 17, 2011
To amend title 4, United States Code, to declare English
as the official language of the Government of the United
States, and for other purposes.
‘‘Sec.
‘‘161. Declaration of official language.
‘‘162. Official Government activities in English.
‘‘163. Preserving and enhancing the role of the official language.
[…] no person has a right, entitlement, or claim to have the
Government of the United States […] act, communicate, perform or
provide services, or provide materials in any language other than
English.
(does not apply to voting rights, education or religious context)
Source: The Library of Congress, Thomas
MOST RECENT LEGISLATIVE ATTEMPTS (2)
“The English Plus Resolution”: Concurrent Resolution
January 7, 2011 (High Congress Resolution 8)
Now, therefore be it
Whereas multilingualism promotes greater crosscultural understanding between different racial and
ethnic groups in the United States;
That the United States Government […] –
Whereas there is no threat to the English language in
the United States;
Whereas “English-only” measures, […], would violate
traditions of cultural pluralism, divide communities
along ethnic lines, jeopardize the provision of law
enforcement […] to those whose English is limited;
Whereas such “English-only” measures […]contradict
the spirit of the 1923 Supreme Court case Meyer v.
Nebraska, “The protection of the Constitution extends
to all; to those who speak other languages as well as to
those born with English on the tongue” …
(1) Encourage all residents of this country to become
fully proficient in English […];
(2) Conserve and develop the Nation’s linguistic
resources by encouraging all residents of this
country to learn or maintain skills in languages
other than English;
(4) Continue to provide services in languages other
than English as needed […];
(5) Recognise the importance of multilingualism to vital
American interests and individual rights, and
oppose “English only” measures and other
restrictionist language measures.
Source: The Library of Congress, Thomas
Advantages of “English Plus”
• Increases number of citizens with multiple language skills
• Aids U.S. trade, diplomacy, and national security
• Shifts focus off a disability of immigrants to speak English, and encourages them to
maintain their native tongue in order to teach it to the monolingual population
How is the “English plus” resolution unsuccessful?
• Many native-born Anglo-Americans are monolingual
• Some organisations have focused more on the English, and others more on the Plus:
tension between advocating a second-language and of defending language rights
• Some critics maintain that English Plus fails to acknowledge the role that minority
groups themselves must play in developing language policies that affect their own
communities
States with “English Plus” Resolutions
New Mexico (1989)
Oregon (1989)
Rhode Island (1992)
Washington (1989)
Source: Crawford, J.
STATE LEGISLATION
Source: Baron, D.
Since 1981 25 states have adopted
various forms of Official English
legislation
Hawaii is officially bilingual
Alaska tried to implement an Englishonly initiative - been declared
unconstitutional
There are 27 states with active Official
English laws.
These measures are unrelated to the
amendment of the U.S. Constitution.
Statute – Arkansas (1987), Georgia (1996), Idaho (2007), Iowa (2002),
Indiana (1984), Kansas (2007), Kentucky (1984), Mississippi (1987),
Missouri (1998), Montana (1995), New Hampshire (1995), North Carolina
(1987), North Dakota (1987), South Carolina (1987), South Dakota
(1995), Tennessee (1984), Utah (2000), Wyoming (1996), Virginia (1981;
1996)
Constitutional amendment – Alabama (1990), Nebraska (1923), Oklahoma
(2010)
Constitutional amendment adopted by voter initiative –, Arizona
(2006),California (1986), Colorado (1988), Florida (1988)
IIllinois (1969) – statute repealing a 1923 declaration of "American" as the
official state language and adopting English
Source: Crawford, D
.
STATUS OF SPANISH IN THE USA
Americans who speak a language other than Spanish at home - 55,076,078
Number of those who are Spanish speakers - 34,183,747 http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/thomas]
Table 2.
Population 5 years and older Who spoke a
Language other than english at home by selected
hispanic origin and race group: 2009 [U.S. Census Study]
Hispanic Origin and race
Percent
Total Population 5 years and
older
20.0
Not Hispanic or Latino
10.0
Hispanic or Latino
76.2
White Alone; not Hispanic or
Latino
14.5
Black or African American Alone
7.9
American Indian and Alaska
Native Alone
29.0
Asian Alone
77.1
Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific
Islander Alone
42.5
Two or More Races
19.6
Source: US Census 2010
LANGUAGE CONCENTRATION IN THE USA
In 2007, with 34.5 million speakers, Spanish is by far the most commonly spoken non-English “minority language”
Concentration by State
For Spanish speakers, three states
(Texas, California, and New Mexico) had
the highest percentage, but the
southwest corridor of the United States
also had a sizable percentage of the
population speaking Spanish
Metropolitan/Micropolitan Concentration
Large metro areas such as New York (9.5%), Los
Angeles (12.8% Spanish), and Chicago (4.3%
Spanish) generally had large proportions of foreignlanguage speakers because of the economic
opportunities in these places or because they act
as gateway points of entry into the country.
Concentration of Spanish Speakers by State
Source: US Census 2010
EXAMPLES
Puerto Rico
New Mexico
Spanish is the native tongue of the vast
majority of Puerto Ricans.
Has a high number of Spanish
speakers
English is taught in the island's schools: less
than 20 percent of its residents have learned
to speak, read, and write English fluently (est.)
State declarations of Official
English produced a counter-trend
English Only legislation has become a cause
for alarm in Puerto Rico
It became the first state to adopt
an English Plus resolution followed
by Oregon and Washington State
Entrance to Puerto Rico: dual flags
1991: congress voted to repeal Puerto Rico's
official bilingualism and replace it with
Spanish as the sole official language
1993: statehood advocates regained the
upper hand - Puerto Rico's legislature
reinstated the policy of official bilingualism.
Despite the fact that it is a predominantly
Spanish-speaking state, Spanish still does not
hold precedence over English in legislation
In many states where English is the official language, and
there is a high percentage of (monolingual) Spanish
speakers immigration is also an issue.
Thus, the language conflict of the area is associated the
issue of illegal immigration
Eg. Prince William County, Virginia
Source: Crawford, J.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wSVQAT3TSdE&feature=plcp&co
ntext=C45eb6b1VDvjVQa1PpcFP38fSI81qfHIaPERetKpcnvteFCoHQ
Vcw%3D&fb_source=message
IS SPANISH A MINORITY LANGUAGE?
Spanish appears to be growing in the states
more due to high numbers of immigration
rather than the passing on of native
language from generation to generation
It is difficult to place Spanish as a minority language in the
USA.
In the above table, it is clear to see that a high
number of Spanish-speaking citizens cannot
understand or speak English.
This means that with English as the dominant
language, they will have difficulties with language
on a day-to-day basis.
It is, however, spoken by a minority group in given areas; would
it therefore be accurate to say that Spanish is a minority
language in the United States?
Obviously, Spanish, though a minority language in the US, is
not a minority language on an international level
It is only a minority language on the basis that it is spoken by a
minority of the US population, and the language does not
possess the same rights to speak their language as English
‘ENGLISH ONLY’ MOVEMENT
•
1981: Senator Samuel Hayakawa of California proposed an English Language
Amendment.
1. A common language can unify, whereas separate languages can
fracture a society.
2. Learning English is the major task of each immigrant.
3. Only by learning English can an immigrant fully participate in our
democracy.
•
This amendment failed, but these themes would spark the movement. The publicity it
achieved led to the creation of the organisation ‘US English’ in 1983.
‘ENGLISH ONLY’ MOVEMENT
•
None of these proposals have been successful, but the English Only movement continues
to lobby vigorously, for a change of language policies at both federal and state levels.
•
However, they have had considerable success at state level.
•
California’s Proposition 63, passed in 1986 – declared English as the official language of
the State of California.
•
Since then, 23 states (and 40 cities) have adopted English as their official language.
•
Statutes and amendments vary significantly from state to state, but generally speaking,
they want:
• English to be the official language of the state
• In most cases, English to be the only language of government activity.
•
These laws are generally popular.
KEY OBJECTIVES OF THE ENGLISH ONLY MOVEMENT:
1. Adopt a constitutional law establishing English as the official language of
the US.
2. Repeal laws mandating multilingual ballots and voting material.
3. Restrict federal funding of bilingual education
4. Strengthen the enforcement of English-language civic and immigration
requirements for naturalisation.
•
These are not particularly new concerns – similar objectives were seen in the
‘Americanisation Movement’ for example, at the time of WWI.
•
What is distinct about the present English Only movement is its national profile and
organisation (and its support from the American public).
FOUR SIGNIFICANT PROBLEMS OF THE ENGLISH ONLY
MOVEMENT:
•
As defined by May:
1. The historical inaccuracy that characterises many of their arguments about the role of English
(and by implication other languages) in the US.
2. Explicit link made between a lack of English-language facility and subsequent educational
failure. Also misrepresentation of bilingual education.
3. Inherent nativism of much English Only rhetoric – i.e. language is used as a convenient proxy
for maintaining racialised distinctions in the US.
4. The assumption that speaking English is a unifying force, whilst multilingualism is by definition
destructive of national unity.
•
‘Historical amnesia’ and the myths on which the English Only movement
is based (May, 2008, p.207).
PROPOSITION 227 IN CALIFORNIA
•
Entitled ‘The English Language Education for Children in Public Schools
Initiative’
•
Passed in 1998
•
Significantly changed the way that LEP (limited English proficient)
students were taught in California.
•
Controversial, given its relation to race and immigration.
BEFORE THE PROPOSITION...
•
70% of all LEP students in California received some sort of help to aid them in
their studies.
• 40% were taught in English, but using class materials and teaching methods
specially for students who do not speak English well.
• 30% were taught at least partly in their home languages.
•
LEP students would receive special help until:
• they could read, write and understand English to the same level as that of
average students in the same grade.
• until they could participate equally with fluent English-speakers in the class (they
may have received special help over several years).
AFTER THE PROPOSITION...
•
Ended the possibility of bilingual education programs for LEP students.
•
Replaces this with an English immersion program.
•
Requires California public schools to teach LEP students in special classes that
are taught nearly all in English.
•
This would eliminate "bilingual" classes in most cases.
•
Shortens the time most LEP students would stay in special classes.
• LEP students should move from special classes to regular classes when they
have acquired a good working knowledge of English.
• These special classes should not normally last longer than one year. This
would eliminate most programs that provide special classes to LEP students
over several years.
TEN YEARS LATER...
•
Mixed opinions about how effective the changes have been.
•
But... test scores of LEP students are said to be higher, and averages of all
students together also higher.
•
Since then, several other states have attempted to follow California's lead with
mixed results.
•
Voters in Arizona approved an English immersion education law in 2000 and
Massachusetts approved one in 2002.
‘All reputable research in bilingual education, as should be clear by now,
suggests that this submersion English-only approach, with only short-term
specialist support, represents the worst of all possible worlds for such
(predominantly Hispanic) students.’ (May, 2008, p.221)
Arizona Department of State,
http://www.azsos.gov/election/2006/Info/PubPamphl
et/english/Prop103.htm, [Accessed 18.03.2012]
Baron, D. Language Laws and Related Court
Decisions, http://www.english.illinois.edu/-people/faculty/debaron/essays/langlaw.htm [Accessed
17.03.2012]
Crawford, J. (1997-2008: Last updated 01.02.2012),
http://www.languagepolicy.net/archives/langleg.htm
[Accessed 16.03.2012]
May, S. (2008) Language and Minority Rights, New
York: Routledge
Thomas: The Library of Congress,
http://thomas.loc.gov/home/thomas.php [Accessed
16.03.2012]
United States Census 2010,
http://2010.census.gov/2010census/ [Accessed
18.03.2012]
Spanish in the United States: Linguistic Contact
and Diversity
Ana Roca, John M. Lipski
Walter de Gruyter 1999
Varieties of Spanish in the United States
John M. Lipski
Georgetown University Press
Language Diversity in the USA
Kim Potowski
Cambridge University Press
On so-called Spanglish
Ricardo Otheguy, Nancy Stern
International Journal of Bilingualism