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Concise Writing & Research Planning

Ciara O’ Sullivan Second Lecture 23.11.2004

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Overview of class

 Guide to writing concisely  syntax  tutorial  Guidelines to writing abstracts  Guidelines to planning research  identification of tasks   task timing and resources GANTT and PERT charts  MS Project  contingency planning

Common syntax errors (syntax = [rules for] sentence building)

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1.

2.

3.

a.

b.

Word choice Delete uninformative words and avoid redundancy Use one word to replace a phrase c.

d.

Avoid grandiloquence or grandiose phrasing Avoid clichés and euphemisms e.

Use synonyms Sentence structure a.

b.

c.

d.

Agreement of subject and verb Pronoun reference Active and passive voice Nouns from verbs e.

American and British styles Paragraph structure

1. Word choice

A paper will be more readable if words are used economically. Writing concisely may be contrary to common practice in some countries where authors are paid by the number of words published! Remember, your goal is to facilitate communication, which is accomplished through concise and lucid writing in a well-organized manner.

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a. Delete uninformative words and avoid redundancy Examples: brief in duration sufficient in number The wound was of a serious nature The rock is red in color It was precooled before use We repeated the experiment again and again

1. Word choice

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past history; mix together; original source; advance planning; globular in shape; more preferable than; seem to appear; for a period of two days; the work will be completed in the not-too-distant future; The reaction rate was examined and found to vary considerably; The results would seem to indicate the possibility that impurities might be present; As far as my own experiments are concerned, they show…; It has been found that … ; It is interesting to note that … (del); Needless to say, … (del).

b. Use one word to replace a phrase

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Many popular expressions can be expressed as a single word, or are better omitted altogether. For example,

At this point of time The reason was because In view of the fact that Was observed to be In the near future In most cases It would appear that Is suggestive of As to whether In the vicinity of It was evident that In the event that Now Because Because Was Soon Mostly Delete Suggests Whether Near Evidently If (should)

c

. Avoid grandiloquence or grandiose phrasing

The word grandiloquence is itself grandiose. It implies a pompous style that impresses no one and provokes ridicule. Conciseness and clarity should apply to scientific writing.

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Compare the following sentences: Computations were conducted on the data calculated.

The data were It may seem reasonable to suggest that the necrotic effect may possibly due to toxins Necrosis may be caused by toxins.

In studies pertaining to identification of phenolic derivatives, drying of the paper gives less satisfactory visualization Phenolic derivatives are easier to see if the paper is left wet.

A method, which was found to be expedient and not very difficult to accomplish and which possessed a high degree of accuracy on the results, was devised whereby ….

An easy, accurate way to …

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d. Avoid clichés and euphemisms

cliché [fr] printing plate; negative; phototype; = « banalité »; chenqiang landiao euphemism - eu (= well), phem (= to speak); weiwan de shuofa e.g., eugenics, eulogy, euphony (pleasing sound), euthanasia (an le-si) Clichés and euphemisms are rarely helpful and often cryptic (secret, with a hidden meaning or a meaning not easily seen).

all in all - (delete) if and when – if Some common euphemisms are simply awkward; For ex., The patient expired; The patient passed away; The patient succumbed; The patient breathed his last; The patient has gone to his rest.

These can be replaced by « The patient died »

d. Avoid clichés and euphemisms

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The following terms are usually better omitted or rephrased: a majority of, an order of magnitude faster, are of the same opinion, as a consequence of, as a matter of fact, as seen from our study it is evident that, based on the fact that, first of all, for the reason that, has the capacity of, in a satisfactory manner, it has long been known that, it is clear that much additional work will be required before a complete understanding, owing to the fact that, the question as to whether, there is reason to believe.

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e. Use of synonyms

A synonym is a word that has the same or nearly the same meaning as another word. The principal reason to employ synonyms is to avoid monotony from using the same term repeatedly. For ex.,

The subject demonstrated a marked sensitivity to the allergen. After receiving the medication, she showed marked improvement. This is a marked medical achievement.

Improved version:

The subject demonstrated a marked sensitivity to the allergen. After receiving the medication, she showed significant improvement. This is an extraordinary medical achievement.

Synonyms for common words can be found in a thesaurus , a dictionary, and some word processing programs. Understanding the nuances of synonyms can be difficult for non-native-anglophone people. The best way to improve your grasp is to read English language authors and practice your own writing.

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2. Sentence structure

1. Agreement of subject and verb The number of the verb must agree with the number of the subject. e.g.

From this work has come improved antibiotic drugs.

From this work have come improved antibiotic drugs.

An evaluation of the experimental results, as well as the clinical findings, are described.

An evaluation of the experimental results, as well as the clinical findings, is described.

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2. Sentence structure

2. Recognising irregular plurals. (for ex., a common mistake is to use a singular verb with data, formulae, and radii) 3. When singular and plural subjects are joined by either … or and neither … nor , the verb must agree with the nearest subject.

For ex., Either the samples or the apparatus were contaminated .

- Either the samples or the apparatus was contaminated. (correct) Note - Either and neither always take a singular verb. For ex., Either of the explanations is acceptable; Neither of the samples is large.

b. Pronoun reference

An antecedent is the word, phrase, or clause to which a pronoun refers. A sentence may be confusing if the pronoun and its antecedent are not clearly identifiable. A missing antecedent cannot be assumed to be « obvious from the context », and an ambiguous reference should always be corrected. e.g., The monkey was operated on by the surgeon when he was 6 weeks old. (who was 6 weeks old?) The ambiguity is removed by positioning the pronoun closer to its antecedent: The monkey, when he was 6 weeks old, was operated on by….

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Better still is to move the relative clause to the beginning, where it will not separate the subject from the principal verb: When he was 6 weeks old, the monkey was operated on by …..

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c. Active and passive voice

English verbs have two voices: active and passive.

In the active voice, the subject performs the action, while in the passive voice the subject receives the action.

As fashions change with time, so does the style of scientific writing. Prior to 1900, scientists routinely used the active voice and personal pronouns in their reports, making such statements as, « I made the following experiment », « I cannot say », ‘I would point out that … ». Then the passive voice gradually gained popularity, perhaps from the belief that its impersonal style denoted greater professionalism. However, the consistent overuse and misuse of the passive voice devitalized scientific writing. Today, the trend is once again turned toward clarity of expression and the freer, more concise writing that results from habitual use of the active voice. Style experts now prefer the active voice, which is more direct, sounds more natural and usually save words.

Comparison:

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It was suggested by Dr. Smith that the test be postponed.

Dr. Smith suggested postponing the test.

A detailed description of the apparatus is presented in this report.

This report presents a detailed description of the apparatus.

This is not to say that you must entirely avoid using the passive voice, which can be quite effective if used sparingly. By placing the receiver of the action as the subject of the sentence, it receives subtle emphasis. e.g., The relationship F = ma was discovered by Newton.

Newton discovered the relationship F = ma.

The first version would be appropriate in a text on the history of physics, whereas the second could be used in a biography of Sir Isaac Newton.

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d. Nouns from verbs

Verbs can express action. For many action verbs there are nouns of similar derivation that expresses the result of the action. For ex., examine-examination and perform-performance . Using the noun form expresses the action indirectly. Your writing will be more vigorous if such nouns are replaced by the verb forms. Ex.,

By analysis of the data By analyzing the data An evaluation of the data was done The data were evaluated The installation of the new equipment has been carried out The new equipment has been installed.

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d. Nouns from verbs

Exercise: Rewrite the following sentenses using the active voice and trying to eliminate redundant words.

1.His performance of the test was adequate.

2.We made at least two analyses on each sample.

3.Evaporation of alcohol from the mixture takes place rapidly.

4.Clarity in writing is my intention .

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e. American and British styles

British writing is different from American writing in certain forms of punctuation and spelling. Whatever style is used will not really affect the reader’s understanding of the text, but you should be consistent and employ the same style throughout a work.

Spelling American British connection connexion inflection defense inflexion defence practice practice (n.) practise (v.) center centre liter litre meter metre (unit of measure) meter (instrument) behavior behaviour color colour distill distil analyze analyse catalog catalogue catalyze catalyse judgment judgement acknowledgment aging acknowledgement ageing

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e. American and British styles

The digraphs ae and oe in words of Latin or Greek derivation are retained in British style: anesthesia anaesthesia cesium caesium diarrhea diarrhoea hematite haematite leukemia fetus leukaemia fœtus Punctuation: American - comma after e.g. and i.e.; none in British

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3. Paragraph structure

In its simplest form, a lucid paragraph contains a topic sentense and clearly related supporting sentenses. The topic sentence comprises the main point or idea of the paragraph, while supporting sentences provide detail or ancillary information. The following are basic guidelines for paragraph design.

1. Cover only one main point or idea in each paragraph.

2. Each sentence should establish or support the topic of the paragraph.

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3. Paragraph structure

All of the patient data were kept in files. The absence of even one clerk caused delays in the monthly reporting. Finally, management decided to interview some system analysts.

(The connection between the three sentences is not clear. Although the meaning can be inferred, it is better to state it outright).

All of the patient data were kept in paper files, which took much staff time to maintain. The absence of even one clerk would delay the monthly patient reports. Management wanted to computerize record-keeping, which would take less time and be more reliable, and finally decided to interview some systems analysts to develop the new system.

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3. Paragraph structure

4. Keep a consistent point of view That is, maintain the same grammatical voice (active or passive) throughout the paragraph.

5. Use parallel construction to male the paragraph easier to understand.

In an attempt to avoid monotony, some writers vary the sentence construction and thereby hinder conprehension. Ex.,

A 10 mg dose produces no effect, a 20 mg dose produces a small effect, but patients show a noticeable effect from a 30 mg dose.

A 10 mg dose produces no effect, a 20 mg dose produces a small effect, but patients show a noticeable effect from a 30 mg dose.

Golden rules

Abstract should be 1/2 to 3/4 page long Abstract should be LAST thing written Summary of the key findings of YOUR work Should encourage the reader to read on Any info included in abstract MUST be included in body of work Seminars 2004

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Guidelines to writing abstracts

Why is your scientific contribution important?

The construction of the science is based on the communication of the research results.

Previous works are the basis for yours, when you enter in the loop (intake, production, output and feedback) you become a consumer and a producer and so on till the end of

Literature Research Production

your research career. Within the circle it is relevant to communicate your results as brief and clear as possible.

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Question

yes

Preliminary research answer

no

New research manuscript

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conclusions results Project design Lab work Dissemination & retrieval

COMMUNICATE!!!!!

Be aware of the contribution of your research to the Scientific Community and try to share it with your colleagues How?

Communicating your results (written, oral, others) Seminars 2004

When you consider you have finished an homogeneous part, be sure before finishing labwork.

Arrange and organize your notes, references or any other material, display and classify it.

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How to start to write a manuscript?

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Organize your information

Structure your information in separate blocks

Notes, commentaries, references, objectives Samples, individuals, sampling, analytical and statistical methods, ...

Answers to the objetives support-ed by numerical, graphical or any other forms Analysis of the results, comparison with other authors Seminars 2004

Try to integrate your puzzle of information

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And structure it!

Structure of a scientific paper

•

Title • Authors’ names and affiliation • Abstract, keywords • Introduction • Material and methods

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• Results

•

Discussion • Conclusions • Acknowledgements • References • Annexes

Keywords

Keywords should not be “empty words” or express generalities. Remember that it will be the keyword that will facilitate people to find the paper – and cite it! (which is what we want, of course!) So, for example in the article we use to use a keyword ‘mayonnaise’ would be incorrect but ‘home made mayonnaise makes it more specific. Seminars 2004

Abstract

The abstract, summary or synopsis is, like the title and keywords, one element within the manuscript of considerable relevant importance. The retrieval of the paper and its reading depend greatly on it.

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Abstract

The main feature of an abstract is its size. In very few words (200-300) the abstract should inform about the main aspects of the manuscript and respond to why, what, how and the results and their interpretation.

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Characteristics of an abstract

Brief Concise Content Informative Condensed Abstract Structured Format Single paragraph Short sentences, but not telegraphed No references, tables or figures No acronyms, abbreviations..

No excessive details

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Abstract

Basic justification for conducting the study (background info) Research objectives Basic Methods Used Specific Results of YOUR work Major Conclusions Seminars 2004

Any info included in the abstract should be included in the body of the article

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Abstract

Should NOT include details of experiment Should NOT include generalities and results of previous works Does not have to contain everything that is included in the paper

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Ask yourself

• • • •

Does my abstract: Clearly state the topic/goal Clearly state the general approach/method Clearly state the main outcome and consequences Contain trivial information or results which are entirely predictable (remove them!)

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Abstract Exercise

Identify points to include in abstract   Background Importance of results – what’s new    Methods used Specific new results obtained Major conclusions In groups of 4 make attempt to draft abstract

Abstract Exercise

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Autosterilisation (i.e. Elimination of salmonella) of mayonnaise by various parameters

What’s new about the results?



Influence of various oils and types of vinegars on antimicrobial properties

Methods used 

Mayonnaise prepared with different vinegars and oils as acidulants – acetic acid used as a control

 

Samples inoculated with salmonella pH and [acetic acid] measured

Abstract Exercise



Results

– At 20 o C best autosterilisation with white wine vinegar mayo – Autosterilisation, but at a slower rate when white wine vinegar contained garlic, tarragon, cider or spirit vinegar – With lowered acetic acid content less salmonella killed – Results much better at 20 o C than 4 o C – At 20 o C grapeseed, soya, olive (w/ basil or garlic) > rapeseed, groundnut, hazelnut, sunflower > blended olive oil Seminars 2004 

Major conclusions

– The type of vinegar used for acidulation has a strong effect on autosterilisation properties due to acetic acid content – Oils of different origins have varying effects on killing of salmonella and garlic/basil observed to enhance this effect

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Abstract Exercise

Abstract Homework Exercise

1.

2.

I.

Modelling the pH of mayonnaise by the ratio of egg to vinegar Auto-oxidate effect of Glucose Oxidase and Catalase in Mayonnaises of Different oxidative susceptibility Product Trials 3.

II.

Mathematical Modelling Detection of Salmonella in food by a 3 days PCR based method 4 . Neural Network Modelling of the fate of Salomonella in home made mayonnaise prepared with citric acid

For preparation in discussion in small group tutorials Seminars 2004

Research Planning

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Research Planning

Research planning is an essential part of and research project Must identify      Tasks to be carried out Time required to carry them out Resources required to carry them out ‘Expected’ results and contigency planning Deliverables and milestones

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SMART Research Planning



GOAL: (also known as SCOPE) – is to define what overall the project will accomplish and what will be different as a result



OBJECTIVE : what the project is trying to achieve – should be SMART objectives, S pecific M easurable A ttainable R ealistic T ime bound objectives

Milestones & deliverables



Milestone

: a point in time representing a key or intermediate event that marks progress



Deliverable

:

a tangible item contributing to the success of the project

NOT: milestone: completion of phase 1; interim progress report … deliverable: a greater understanding of the processes ….

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SMART Research Planning

Ask two key questions: 1. What will the project do and how will we know if it’s going according to plan?

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2. What will the project deliver and how will we know if it’s a success?

Can Ph.D. students plan research ?

YES! Together with supervisor who has more global view of project Look at the grant application of the project that you are working on You will see “Targets, milestones, deliverables…..Year 1, Year 2 and Year 3” Your supervisor (or the project PI) has taken a

horizon view

of where you should be after 3 years Usually this is an aspiration or “Best Guess” Seminars 2004

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Important for future career!

“To get the grant, a PI has had to pay at least lip-service to ideas of Project Planning and Management”

……but they have not had any formal training and therefore they depend on their years of experience of getting PhDs through

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You Thought processes…….

Supervisor

90% time 100% Motivation Little idea of what’s required “It’s up to the supervisor to come up with the ideas, not me” “If this project fails, I’ll have to write up a lousy Masters” 10% time Changeable motivation Good idea of what’s required (?) “Well, I have 4 other students …” “I’ll have to keep the funders sweet”

Some typical PhD scenarios

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Get dispirited in Year 1 as nothing works Cul-de-sacs Have a “Purple patch” in Year 2 when you cash in and get loads of data Disagree with supervisor over when you have enough data Take forever writing up

Good Habits in Project Management

Agree overall staged research outcomes for the year with supervisor Targets should be challenging but within reach “By Christmas, I should have that, then by….” Detailed plans for next 3 months work Allow % contingency Broad strokes for 6, 9 and 12 months Put it all on a chart Seminars 2004

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Manage your time: Plan the Week Ahead

On Fridays, write down in your diary what you should be doing next week Complete week’s work with report, summary..

Hit the ground running on Monday (Of course this doesn’t really apply since PhDs work on week-ends like their supervisors before them !)

“Macro” and “Micro” Planning

Plan your day the previous evening and make priority list -

Morning:

experiment 2 of 6 replicates -

Afternoon:

data analysis, see boss, order chemicals Seminar at 4pm, tennis at 6pm

Don’t over-pack the day with a TO DO list

Allow % for reading, thinking, peer chats Seminars 2004

Reports: Blocks of Work

Summarise data logically and DISCUSS with references (Endnote) Do one complete report every Quarter Match outcomes to agreed targets with supervisor Circulate draft to supervisor and objective colleague Reflective time to consider next steps Archived reports make Ph.D writing easy Seminars 2004

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Why do some Ph.D. projects fail ?

Shaky hypothesis PhD student not suitable No fall-back position when path blocked Poor supervision Bad project process

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Project Management Tools

1. Define the goal and set your eyes on the prize (Shackleton versus Scott)

Write down a checklist of deliverables that will comprise the Goal - eg. Establishing methods, Theses Chapter titles…….

Read several excellent PhD theses NOW to see the standard and how to get there

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2. Make a list of the jobs to be done

Write a plan to get you to the first point on the journey Some jobs will have to be done to get the ball rolling If the job is vague, break it down into several jobs and estimate the time required

…………eg. To look at where a drug is going in the brain, you need the following skills….

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Sub-Project 1 out of 8. For each job……..

Resources required ?

Skills required ? Training ?

Identifiable milestones State all assumptions Dependencies outside your control High risk areas Timeline and how you arrived at it

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3. Leadership – it’s your project

Take ownership Show your supervisor that you can work to an agreed plan without needing to be

micro-managed

Meet your supervisor once a week or in a team setting and have specific goals in mind: updating results, discussion points, next steps and when you aim to have them

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4. Manage Expectations

Maximise chances of success Allow a margin for error - Order enough cell culture consumables to allow for an infection - If a plan takes 6 months to give an all-or-nothing piece of data, why not have something going along in parallel ?

What’s Plan B ? - Test a hypothesis in a

simple established system

(eg. Laboratorio de Investigacion project)

5. Monitoring progress-vibes

Reports are regular You are having fun and are working como una burra Morale and confidence is high You feel your ability has increased Good lab atmosphere Milestones are being met A cerveza with the supervisor isn’t so bad after all Seminars 2004

Bad vibes

Seminars 2004 “Nodding dogs” in meetings “Everything’s under control” You procrastinate You change the agreed research goalposts Crisises and mistakes abound You don’t meet supervisor deadlines and don’t discuss why There’s no evidence of real progress over a sustained period

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6. Communication

Tools: progress reports and meetings Show lab books to supervisor and peers regularly Resolve issues and review progress Keep assumptions, deliverables, timelines to the fore. Avoid supervisor “howzitgoin’” sessions and get specific on how to move project forward Anticipate log-jams

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Meetings in Project Management

Good meetings smash obstacles, resolve issues, move project forward Many drift along without purpose and have no agenda

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Good meetings (in general) …..

Clear objectives (Identify participants/resources needed) Base agenda on above Outline any advance prep Set time constraints on each agenda item Chair drives through agenda Are minuted with Action Items for next meeting

In managing your project……

Seminars 2004 Be wary of meetings if the following are not met - Clear objective - Required prep outlined (if needed) - Why do I need to go ??

- How long will it last ?

- (Who is the Chair ?) University supervisors are not trained to run good meetings

Effective Lab Groups

Seminars 2004 Clear goals and objectives Understanding and interdependence Cohesiveness Trust between group leader, postdocs, PhD students and technicians Potent force: effect > sum of parts Like Celtic FC last Thursday, or Ireland rugby last Saturday…..

Success Indicators

For your performance: Feedback Questionnaire Evaluate planned workplan with achieved workplan Regular review with supervisor and Graduate Studies Committee How are you shaping up with respect to peers ?

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…For the Project

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Milestones being met ?

Are they well-defined or woolly ?

Are my plans for the next few weeks clear and achievable ?

Is there a margin for error achieved through a plausible fall-back position ? Am I writing regular reports ?

Am I disseminating information ?

But getting a Ph.D is never that simple………

You need to develop good problem-solving skills

- Read good papers and attend lots of seminars Brainstorm - Ideal solution ? Is there a less idyllic but acceptable one ? Plan B - Can I get an expert to do this piece while I focus on another aspect in parallel ?

………………..

eg James Watson in the Double Helix

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But getting a Ph.D is never that simple………

The mental side can be tough

-

Stress: when you are not in control of events - Keep a sense of proportion - Stay in contact with peers - Walk away at the end of the day - Be conscious of your own strengths and weaknesses - Changing project at the end of Year 1 is possible and you could still get out in the four years Seminars 2004

This isn’t what I thought a Ph.D was about………

But: most theses are not earth-shattering They are achieved by mature, hard-working, dogged, disciplined, tenacious people Writing, reading, mulling over data, talking to colleagues, going to meetings is part of the deal

Justifying over-run on agreed 4 years (and soon will change to 3 years is not good for anybody………….hence even more need for good project and time management

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Tools for planning & management

Gantt Chart Pert Chart Contingency Planning

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What is a Gantt chart?

A Gantt chart is a horizontal bar chart developed as a production control tool in 1917 by Henry L. Gantt, an American engineer and social scientist. Frequently used in project management, a Gantt chart provides a graphical illustration of a schedule that helps to plan, coordinate, and track specific tasks in a project. Gantt charts may be simple versions created on graph paper or more complex automated versions created using project management applications such as Microsoft Project or Excel.

What is a Gantt chart?

A Gantt chart is constructed with a horizontal axis representing the total time span of the project, broken down into increments (for example, days, weeks, or months) and a vertical axis representing the tasks that make up the project (for example, if the project is outfitting your computer with new software, the major tasks involved might be: conduct research, choose software, install software).

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What is a Gantt chart?

Horizontal bars of varying lengths represent the sequences, timing, and time span for each task.

Using the same example, you would put "conduct research" at the top of the verticle axis and draw a bar on the graph that represents the amount of time you expect to spend on the research, and then enter the other tasks below the first one and representative bars at the points in time when you expect to undertake them.

What is a Gantt chart?

The bar spans may overlap, as, for example, you may conduct research and choose software during the same time span. As the project progresses, secondary bars, arrowheads, or darkened bars may be added to indicate completed tasks, or the portions of tasks that have been completed. A vertical line is used to represent the report date Seminars 2004

Gantt & Pert Charts

Seminars 2004 Gantt charts give a clear illustration of project status, but one problem with them is that they don't indicate task dependencies - you cannot tell how one task falling behind schedule affects other tasks. The

PERT chart

, another popular project management charting method, is designed to do this. Automated Gantt charts store more information about tasks, such as the individuals assigned to specific tasks, and notes about the procedures. They also offer the benefit of being easy to change, which is helpful. Charts may be adjusted frequently to reflect the actual status of project tasks as, almost inevitably, they diverge from the original plan.

What is a Pert Chart?



A PERT chart is a project management tool used to schedule, organize, and coordinate tasks within a project. PERT stands for Program Evaluation Review Technique, a methodology developed by the U.S. Navy in the 1950s to manage the Polaris submarine missile program.

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A similar methodology, the Critical Path Method (CPM), which was developed for project management in the private sector at about the same time, has become synonymous with PERT, so that the technique is known by any variation on the names: PERT, CPM, or PERT/CPM.

What is a Pert Chart?

Numbered rectangles are nodes and represent events or milestones Directional arrows represent dependent tasks that must be completed sequentially Diverging arrow directions indicate possibly concurrent tasks Dotted lines indicate dependent tasks that do not require resources

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What is a Pert Chart?

 

A PERT chart

A PERT chart presents a graphic illustration of a project as a network diagram consisting of numbered

nodes

(either circles or rectangles) representing events, or milestones in the project linked by labelled

vectors

representing tasks in the project. (directional lines) The direction of the arrows on the lines indicates the sequence of tasks. In the diagram, for example, the tasks between nodes 1, 2, 4, 8, and 10 must be completed in sequence. These are called

dependent

or

serial

tasks.

What is a Pert Chart?

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The tasks between nodes 1 and 2, and nodes 1 and 3 are not dependent on the completion of one to start the other and can be undertaken simultaneously. These tasks are called parallel or concurrent tasks. Tasks that must be completed in sequence but that don't require resources or completion time are considered to have event dependency. These are represented by dotted lines with arrows and are called dummy activities. For example, the dashed arrow linking nodes 6 and 9 indicates that the system files must be converted before the user test can take place, but that the resources and time required to prepare for the user test (writing the user manual and user training) are on another path.

Numbers on the opposite sides of the vectors indicate the time allotted for the task.

Pert & Gantt Chart - software

 The Pert Chart is often preferred over the Gantt Chart as it is easier and clearer to read for simple projects. However, for complex projects it is very difficukt to read and generally both Pert and Gantt charts are used.

 There are numerous software programs available for making Pert and Gantt charts, the most popular of which is Microsoft Project.  For free trial downloads: MS Project http://www.microsoft.com/office/trial/default.mspx

SMARTDRAW http://www.smartdraw.com/ Seminars 2004 Good tutorial with quicktime video at http://www.computer-training software.com/project2000.htm

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Examples – GANTT

real vs planned

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Examples - GANTT

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Examples - CPM

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Examples - Pert

Contingency Planning

 For each task identified in your research plan, you should carry out a risk analysis and based on the risk analysis a contingency plan should be outlined.

 Thus for each task label tham as being of ‘Low’, ‘Medium’ or ‘High’ risk and for the medium or high risks, outline what you could do or what alternate path there is if the task cannot be achieved with the current workplan Seminars 2004  Contingency planning should also include the possibilities of reagents from particular providers being out of stock, equipment breakdown etc.

Mayonnaise Project

Identify tasks Identify resources Identify timing of tasks and interdependency Deliverables and Milestones Outline contingency planning

Work together in groups of 4 and do preliminary workplan for mayonnaise project

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But don’t overcomplicate things!

Seminars 2004 Tasks  Literature search to see state of the art              Identify project goals Identify oils and vinegars to be used Purchase oils and vinegars Purchase salmonella culture Purchase eggs Prepare mayonnaise Prepare salmonella culture Measure pH Measure Acetic Acid Content Analyse Results Plot results Prepare manuscript Submit

Workplan

Workplan

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Timing

– – – – – – – – – – – – – –

Literature search to see state of the art – 1 week Identify project goals – 3 days Identify oils and vinegars to be used – 3 days Purchase oils and vinegars – 3 days Purchase salmonella culture – 3 days Purchase eggs – 3 days Prepare mayonnaise – 1 day for each batch (14 days) Prepare salmonella culture – 1 day for each batch (7days Measure pH – 1 day for each batch Measure Acetic Acid Content – 1 day for each batch Analyse Results – 1 week Plot results – 1 week Prepare manuscript – 3 weeks Submit

Workplan

Seminars 2004 

Resources

– – – – – –

Oils Vinegars Eggs Salmonella culture BM test kit Genral lab reagents

– – –

pH meter Culture facilities Microscope

– –

Technician Student

Gantt Chart

Task Literature search Identify project goals Identify oils and vinegars Purchase oils and vinegars Purchase salmonella culture Purchase eggs Prepare mayonnaise Prepare salmonella culture Measure pH Measure Acetic Acid Content Plot results Analyse Results Prepare manuscript Submit 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 Seminars 2004

Seminars 2004

Pert Chart

Seminars 2004

Workplan



Deliverables

– – – –

Purchase of raw materials Preparation of mayonnaise pH measurement Acetic Acid Content



Milestones

–

Correlation of acidulation and oils on autosterilisation of mayonnaise

Seminars 2004

Workplan



Contingency Planning

– –

No emulsion formed - change oils; change egg to oil to acidulant ration No autosterilisation observed – change egg to oil to acidulant ratio

–

No trend between oil/acidulant content and killing of salmonella – re-design experiment to include other parameters OR this could indicate a GO/NO-GO POINT.

–

A Go/no Go Point can be reached when the project cannot proceed as previously planned and thus must be started over, dramatically modified or abandoned.

Seminars 2004

Homework



A workplan,



incorporating identification of research tasks,



time and resources required to carry out research tasks,



identification of deliverables and milestones and their timing as well a contingency plan, should be prepared.



This workplan will also include identification of required resources and a Gantt/Pert type chart.