Human Communication

UDSM, January 2010.

English for Water Managers

Introduction to Communication

• In today’s world, communication enables man to influence and

control his environment and is

seen as one of the conditions for

development. Not only is

communication an integral part of human life, but it is also the pivot of society as the key component of all cultural, political, educational and economic activity.

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Communication cont/

• • Positive change is achieved as a result of the efficient and effective flow of information, a process that can only obtain through the use of effective communication skills.

. People in organizations typically spend over 75% of their time in an interpersonal situation; thus it is no surprise to find that at the root of a large number of organizational problems is poor communication 3

Purpose of this module

• • • The Communication Skills module will enable Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM) experts to examine the relationship between the theory and practice of communication, to demonstrate how the acquisition of Communication Skills enhances decision-making processes, encourages the smooth flow of information and how, through mastery of communication skills, IWRM experts can address the challenges 4

• • • • • •

Objectives of the Module

Raise an awareness and understanding of communication dynamics equip IWRM experts with requisite skills needed in making their clients aware of IWRM-related issues. Enable IWRM managers make informed decisions on crucial issues affecting their interaction with the environment. equip Water Managers with the knowledge, skills and techniques needed in evaluating a variety of situations and circumstances likely to arise during interaction with clients.

Working with different view points Define the term communication.

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What is Communication?

• • Communication is a process in which

feelings,

comprehended.

ideas

are expressed as verbal and/or non verbal messages, sent, received and Theodorson (1969) quoted in McQuail and Windhal (1993) defines communication as ‘the

transmission of information, ideas,

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attitudes or emotions from one person or

Definition (cont)

• • Rodgers (1986) in Communication Technology defines ‘communication’ as “a process in which participants create

and share information with one another in order to reach a mutual understanding”.

Carey (1992) communication as ‘a symbolic process

whereby reality is produced, maintained,

repaired and transformed .

defines 7

Communication (cont)

• Human communication is dynamic – the communication process is always in a constant state of change. As attitudes,

feelings, expectations, emotions of

persons who are communicating change, the nature of their communication changes as well 8

Communication

• • Communication is continuous – it never stops.

Human beings are always processing information and ideas, thoughts, expressions all the time, whether awake or asleep – our brains remain active and are always communicating.

Communication is irreversible : once we send a message, we cannot undo it. Once we make a slip of the tongue, or give a meaningful glance 9

Communication

• Or an emotional outburst, we cannot erase it.

Sometimes our apologies, denial cannot erase what has taken place.

Communication is

interactive :

as communicators, we are constantly in contact with other people and with our selves. Other people react to our speech, actions and we also react to our own speech – it becomes a cycle of

action reaction

our communication.

becomes the basis of 10

Communication

• Communication is contextual : it is a part of our entire human experience. We need to develop an awareness and skills necessary to function as effective communicators and to adapt to:  the setting  the people present  the purpose of the communication 11

Human Communication

• This occurs on basically 3 levels:  Intrapersonal communication with one self. It encompasses thought processing, personal decision making, listening, and determination of self concept.

 Interpersonal communication takes place between two persons who establish a communicative relationship. This includes 12

Human Communication

• activities such as interviews, conversations and small group discussions.

Public communication is characterized by a speaker sending a message to an audience. This may be face to face or direct communication for example, delivering a message or it maybe indirect such as relaying a message through the radio or television.

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Communication Process

• • • • • SENDER (SOURCE OF INFORMATION: Originator of the message (WHO).

MESSAGE : WHAT IS COMMUNICATED.

CHANNEL : By WHAT MEANS is the message communicated.

RECEIVER : AUDIENCE FEEDBACK : RESPONSE to the message.

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Source of the Message

• Communication starts when a Source is consciously or unconsciously stimulated by some event, object or idea. A need to send a message in then followed by a memory search to find the appropriate language (verbal or non verbal) in which to take the ideas and put them into message (encode).

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Message

• What is to be communicated to the audience.

•

The Channel

The means by which the message is communicated to the audience e.g, we rely on five senses, electronic channel – telephones (sound), television (sight), physical contact e.g. tapping a person on the shoulder (touch channel) 16

Examples of Communication Channels

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Communication channels cont.

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Choosing a channel

• • • • When choosing what channel to use to communicate particular information, the following should be • focused on : the availability of the channel the credibility of the channel permanence speed with which information is disseminated and potential for feedback from the receiver to the source or sender of the information.

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Communication channels cont.

• • • • the diversity of cultural, linguistic and social groupings the physical barriers of terrain and distance which have resulted in an undeveloped transport and communication infrastructure the educational barrier of illiteracy limited access to the mass media 20

Audience

• Audience refers to the Receiver of the message. The message must be translated (Decoded) into the receiver’s own language system. This message is not identical to the other encoded by the source because each person’s symbol system is shaped by a unique set of perceptions.

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Feedback

• Once meaning is assigned to the received message - the receiver is in a position to respond. Feedback can be a verbal or non- verbal reaction to the message or both.

Feedback indicates misunderstands (disagrees).

(by whether shrugging the receiver understands the message e.g by nodding, shoulders), encouraging source to continue (by leaning forward and saying ‘yes’) or by pulling back 22

•

Feedback (cont)

The act of responding by which the receiver sends feedback to the source, actually shifts the role of the receiver to that source.

•

Noise

Messages are influenced not only by interpretations of each communicator but also by noise which is any internal or external interference in the communication environmental, physiological, semantic (meanings of process words), (e.g.

23 syntactic

The Context.

• Communication does not occur in a vacuum – it always relates to a context. That is:  Who is present  Where the communication is taking place (e.g. size of the room)  General attitude of those assembled 24

Communication cont.

•

Communication is power. Those who have mastered its effective use can change their own experience of the world and the world’s experience of

them.(Anthony Robbins).

• What do you think is the single most important benefit of learning the skills of communication?

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Test yourself…

• 1.

2.

3.

Respond to each of the following statements with T for true if you think the statement is always or usually true and F for false if you think the statement is always or usually false. Good communicators are born, not made The more you communicate, the better your communication will be.

Unlike effective speaking, effective listening really cannot be taught.

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Test

4. Opening lines such as Hello, how are you or Fine weather today serve no useful communication purpose 5. Like good communicators, leaders are born and not made.

6. Fear of public speaking is detrimental and must be eliminated.

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Language and Meaning

• • The process of communication involves using words to create meaning and expectations. Meanings are in people and not in words – as you go through this course, it is important for you to note that you have your own meaning that you ascribe to words you use and other people have theirs. A Japanese proverb “ By your mouth you shall perish” brings in another dimension on language and communication – the dimension of meaning and culture. 28

Language and Meaning

• As Water Managers, you work in different cultures and subcultures different from your own. All these have different languages that vary from culture to culture - it is important to recognize that the language we speak helps sustain our perception of reality and our view of our world • -in your day to day interaction with communities you work with, you should not assume that the words you use and the words people from other cultures use mean the same thing and that people see reality the same when 29

Language and Gender

• Sometimes the sex of the communicators affects not only the meaning they give to their utterances but also the very structure of those utterances. A linguist, Deborah Tannen, points out that women and men use different “gender-lects” – • • while women speak and hear a language of “connection and intimacy”, men speak and hear a language of “status and independence”. 30

Language and Gender

• As a result, when conversing with men, #women tend to listen attentively rather than interrupt or challenge, what a man is saying.

#Another researcher, Gillagan (1982) asserts that women are guided morally by a motivation to maintain relationships and protect their social 31 partners; they tend to seek to minimize

Language and Gender

• Men are said to argue linearly to solve a problem of a moral conflict, generally arriving at a definitive conclusion – distance is established to distance oneself from personal involvement in the decision-making process itself • the assumption seems to be that challenging men in conversation could damage the established connection that most women believe must be preserved at all costs.

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Male-Female Communication

•

Men

• Use speech to report • • • To compete To gain attention To maintain their position in a social hierarchy • • • • •

Women

Use speech to gain rapport .

To maintain relationships To reflect a sense of community. 33

Men-Female

• •

Men

Men tend to use Language to preserve their independence Men tend to say what they have to say, assume that the message is clear and proceed from that point.

• •

Women

Tend to use Language to create intimacy and connection Women use more words to make their point – they tend to be more sensitive to the needs of their listener, spend time clarifying to their listener 34

Male-Female

• •

Men

Men tend to be task-oriented, they want results at all cost Men are more direct – when men want something, they ask for it directly • •

Women

Women tend to be more maintenance oriented Tend to be more supportive conversationalists – they are likely to 35 check the connection of conversations

Male-Female

Men

• • Men tend to be self-oriented and concerned with action.

Men have been taught to hide or disregard their feelings • Men are interested in visual stimulation and physical detail

Women

• Women disclose more personal information than men do. In their vocabulary, women tend to be people oriented and concerned with psychological and emotional states.

36 Women have larger vocabularies for

Meaning and Experience

• The meanings of words are based on our experiences with the words and things they represent. Take note of this observation from Anton Chekov “ If you cry Forward! you must be sure to make clear the direction in which to go. Don’t you see that if you fail to do that and simply call out the word to a monk and a revolutionary, they will go in precisely opposite directions(Anton Chekov) 37

Male-Female

• • • • • • • Men Men offer solutions and invalidated feelings Men tend to pull away and silently think about what might be bothering them Men are motivated when they feel needed Men primarily need a love that is trusting, accepting and appreciative Men think women want solutions rather than empathy Men feel that instead of feeling nurtured, he feels he’s being controlled 38

• • • • • • •

Women

Women offer unsolicited advice and direction Women feel an instinctive need to talk about what is bothering them Women are motivated when they feel cherished Women primarily need a love that is caring, understanding and respectful Women complain that men don’t listen – they want empathy Women might think that they are nurturing men.

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Communication and Culture

• • Communication and Culture have a direct link. Culture consists of all those individuals who have a shared system of interpretation.

No culture can live, if it attempts to be exclusive

(Mahatma Gandhi) 40

Communicating in a Culturally diverse world and society.

• To help you assess your personal preparedness to communicative effectively with persons of different cultures, respond to each of the following statements by labeling as either True or False: 1. I try to communicate with persons like me as often as I can 2. I rarely consider my culture or the cultures of the individual I am interacting with 3. I find it difficult to , tell when persons from other cultures do not understand me 5. Persons from other cultures have no right to be

6.People from other cultures who don’t talk when around others act that way because they usually have nothing to say 7. Disagreements with persons from other cultures should always be expressed openly 8. My culture is superior to other cultures 9. I am uncertain how to behave with persons of different cultures.

10. I am unfamiliar with rules of any culture other than my own.

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Intercultural Communication

• This can be defined as the process of

interpreting and sharing meanings with

individuals from different cultures. It also comprises interracial, inter ethnic, international, intra-cultural – which includes all forms of communication among members of the same racial, ethnic or sub-cultures.

•

Who are the people involved in teaching members of a community

their culture? Parents, teachers, religious institutions, peers, mass 43

• • • • •

Activity

What steps have you personally taken to reduce the strangeness of strangers? (Intercultural Communication) Note all of us work hard enough to understand or to be understood by those with whom we differ. To counter this ‘strangeness’, we need to: Open ourselves to differences by adding to our knowledge of others By learning to cope with uncertainty By developing an appreciation of how increasing our cultural sensitivity will positively affect our communication 44

Activity

• • • How do individual’s feelings about socialization differ from your own?

To what extent do the individuals values and attitude differ from yours Which of your behaviours did the individual have difficulty understanding or accepting? Which of his or her behaviours did you have difficulty with?

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Activity

• •

Individualism versus Collectivism

Individualistic cultures for example, in the UK, France, Germany, Canada focus on stressing the individual goals, whereas collectivistic cultures for example, Arabic, African, Asian, Latin American countries, group goals are given precedence instead.

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Activity

• • •

Collectivistic cultures:

Tend to nurture group influence – “We” is dominant in such cultures.

These are also referred to as high context cultures, that are tradition bound, that is, cultural traditions shape the behaviour and lifestyle of group members causing them to appear overly polite and indirect in relating to others.

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• • • • • •

Activity

Individualistic cultures:

Cultivate individual initiative and achievement - “I” is important Generally encourage members to exhibit a more direct communication style for example, Americans tend to speak directly on an issue, whereas individuals from Japan, Korea, China prefer to avoid confrontation to preserve: sense of harmony to make it possible for the individuals with whom they are speaking to save face or maintain self-esteem.

48 For example, Saudi Arabians rarely criticize

Intercultural communication

• • • •

Improving intercultural communication

One can do this by accepting the fact that our culture is not superior to other cultures avoid basing our behaviour expectations for members of other cultures on our own cultures norms.

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• • • • • •

Activity

How to improve your ability to communicate interculturally

limit your reliance on stereotypes that can diminish your success when you interact with others there is need for you to reduce your uncertainty levels regarding the persons of different cultures with whom you communicate Refrain from formulating expectations based on solely on your culture Recognise how faulty education can impede understanding(personal biases, prejudices, acknowledge differences that you have developed over the years) 50 Make a commitment to develop

Communication and self concept

• • • • How do your friends picture you?

Self-concept

Spend some time considering who you are and what you intend to do with the rest of your life. Self concept is everything you think and feel about yourself. It is the entire collection of attitudes and beliefs you hold about who and what you are. E One is not born with self concept but develops one. Although one undergoes changes, it is difficult to alter or change the picture you have of yourself. The way we are treated by others influences our sense of self.

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Self concept is shaped by :

• One’s environment • By people around you for example, peers, relatives • • • • If people important to you have made you feel accepted, valued, worthwhile, lovable and significant, you have probably developed a positive self concept. On the other hand, is those important have made you feel left outm small, worthless, unloved, insignificant, you probably have developed a negative self concept.

Self concept is a mental picture you have of yourself. If you feel you have little worth, you probably expect to be taken advantage of, stepped on, demeaned by others.

Our opinions about ourselves grow more and more resistant to change as we become older and presumably wiser, how you look at yourself is affected by how you look at other people, how people actually look at you, how you imagine or 52 perceive that people look at you. * Self concept may be

Communication and self concept

• 1. List the names of all the people with whom you interacted during a single day this week/ or last week. For each : • • Identify the communicated environment in which you Choose an adjective to describe your image of yourself during each interaction and an adjective to describe your image of the person with whom you spoke.

• What can you say about the nature of your self image? To what extent does your view of yourself change as you move from person to person – what contributes to these changes.

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Purposes of Communication.

• • • Intrapersonal (communication with oneself) To think, reason, analyze, reflect Intercultural (between people of different cultures) To learn, relate, influence, help, play. Mass (addressed to an extremely large audience, mediated by audio and/or visual means) To entertain, to persuade, reinforce, change, activate, inform, confer, create ties 54

Visuals and Communication

• • • • The use of visuals in communication are classified into three categories namely, those that are used for telling, and showing and doing. He points out that visuals that allow the audience to “do” or experience something are more concrete than visuals that simply “show” something. Examples from Dale’s cone of experience: Telling : using verbal symbols, visual symbols, graphs, charts, cartoons, diagrams, pictures, sketches, maps, bar graphs, line graphs.

Showing : using demonstrations, excursions, study trips, video clips, films – these bring the audience closer to reality than mere telling.

Doing : participation by the audience for example, role playing, working on case studies.

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• • • • • •

Activity

Think about textbooks, newspapers, magazines you have read. How have visuals in these helped you to understand the information being put across? Have they : clarified an image not made quite clear by words alone?

guided you through a maze of unfamiliar information?

emphasized materials so that you remember it?

allowed you to find information quickly? and to make comparisons between items?

People rely on non-verbal messages to help them communicate and people respond to 56

Visuals and Communication

• • • • • • • •

Advantages of using visuals in communication.

visuals, especially tables can consolidate a great deal of information int0 relatively little space.

They clarify concepts They emphasize materials They guide the audiences through important material They make it easier to see an overall pattern and draw comparisons They help to make ideas concrete and encourage creative thinking by projecting alternate solutions to a problem.

can express simultaneous conditions as words cannot.

57 They help in solving anticipated problems in

remember

• • • • Remember, Communication takes place within a system – as we enter into communicative relationships with others, we set a pattern by which we will interact We teach others how to treat us – we need to develop a system, a structure within any communicative exchange, and each person plays a role within the system. If the role is accepted by the other person, it becomes a pattern We communicate what and who we are – every time we communicate, we tell a great deal about ourselves – our selection of words, we tone of our voice and the gestures we use combine to give a picture of our values, likes, dislikes, experiences, beliefs and self perception. We give clues of our background by the pronunciation patterns we produce, and the attitudes we express 58

remember

• • • Much of our communication centres on our wanting others to act or think or feel as we do; in other words, much of it is an attempt at persuasion Meaning is in people, not in words – the meaning of a word only has that meaning by virtue of the meaning people give to that word We cannot not communicate – communication does not necessarily stop simply because people stop talking and listening – much of our communication is done below the verbal level 59

remember

• • • People react to our action – we are constantly demonstrating the action back.

reaction principle. For example, when we smile, others are likely to smile We do what we do because in the end we expect to achieve happiness – when we enter into communication, we do so hoping to gain from the experience.

We cannot always have the same understandings and as others- as we communicate we must recognize that because of differences in our cultures, the only areas we share are those in which we have common experiential ground.

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Human Communication

THE END 61