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Social Psychology of Work Dr. Craig Jackson Senior Lecturer in Health Psychology Faculty of Health UCE Birmingham Scope Organisational behaviour in the workplace Group structures Group behaviour Leadership decision-making Organisational climate Affects Job satisfaction Mental well-being Stress Bullying Ageing Change Impacts on: Health Attendance Turnover Productivity Industrial Nation History 18th – 19th CENTURY INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION Decline in domestic industry Large scale factory units Maximum division of labour Hierarchical structures Poor conditions / limited worker power 20th CENTURY 1970s Continuous technological change Production line working Growth of trades unions Improved physical conditions Industrial Nation History LATTER 20th CENTURY Decline of traditional industries Growth of information technology Growth of service industries New patterns and styles of working Changing composition of labour force Decline in trades unions 21st CENTURY Free trade Producer responsibilities Population movements International communities Supra national groups Changes 21st CENTURY Free trade Producer responsibilities Population movements International communities Supra national groups WHAT KIND OF WORK? WHAT PATTERN OF WORK? WHAT STYLE OF WORKING? WHAT KIND OF WORKFORCE? WHAT KIND OF NEEDS? What Kind of Work ? NON-MANUAL KNOWLEDGE-BASED SERVICE WORK What Pattern of Work? 24 HOUR SOCIETY IRREGULAR HOURS NEW TECHNOLOGY CASUALISATION / SHORT-TERM CONTRACTS OUTSOURCING HOME WORKING What Kind of WorkForce? EDUCATED NON-UNIONISED HIGH PERCENTAGE OF WOMEN MULTI-CULTURAL AGEING REQUIREMENT FOR JOB SATISFACTION Traditions of Work Psychology 1. Relationship between the person and the job (Motivation / Satisfaction) 2. Interactions between individuals and groups within organizations Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (1954) Self actualisation (personal growth and fulfilment) GROWTH NEEDS Esteem (self and others) Belonging (group membership, affection, companionship) HOMOSTATIC NEEDS Security (safety, stability, continuity) Bodily needs (food, drink, safety) PEOPLE ALWAYS BEHAVE AS IF SELF- PRESERVATION IS A BASIC GOAL? Alternative Theories of Motivation / Job Satisfaction Task Characteristic theory: People motivated by tasks which offer skill variety, value and autonomy Goal-Setting theory: People motivated by clear and demanding goals Reinforcement theory: People motivated by rewards and punishments Equity theory: People motivated by social comparisons made with others – input & outcome Expectancy theory: People motivated when there is a match between what people value (expect to get) and what their job provides Systems Approach to Organisation Liu & Tanaka 2002 – Japanese working men study Input (goods & materials) Transformation Process (mass production tech.) Formal system Social system Tech. system Output (finished goods) Interrelated Sub-Systems FORMAL SYSTEMS Explicitly designed to regulate actions of employees e.g. hierarchy, working time etc. TECHNOLOGY SYSTEMS Techniques used by employees The way the work is done SOCIAL SYSTEMS The prevailing culture & context e.g. values, norms, shared attitudes Working Groups Important to understand Inevitable Change individuals' behaviours Can have powerful consequences Understanding increases chance of desirable consequences Why do people join groups? Security Mutual benefit (goal achievement) Need for companionship Self-esteem Mutual interests (sharing) Group Norms Indicate expected behaviour Concerned with observable behaviour Express central values Aid survival of group Obvious to outsiders – statement of intent Make group manageable Accepted by majority of members Why Shun Group Norms Personal goals in conflict with those of group No pride in group membership Pre-occupation with achieving personal goals Not accepted as group member age gender ethnicity education Communication Structure Performance effects – methodological considerations Task monotony cognitive skills Measures speed accuracy efficiency Individual aspects motivation perceived importance age ability health activity Situation / context supervision morale distractions 12 hour shifts Williamson et al. 1994 Australia 8hr vs. 12hr rotating computer operators psych health improved reduced tiredness Duchon et al. 1994 Canada 8hr vs. 12hr rotating miners improved sleep improved performance Chan & Gan Singapore 8hr vs. 12hr rotating electronic workers no health differences some headaches Vulnerable groups Over 50’s Morning types Long sleepers Personality types Heavy domestic commitments Multiple jobs Some physical conditions Psychiatric problems Employee Selection Pre-employment counselling Management Counselling Education Provide facilities Manipulate schedules carefully Increased control of work Reduce any stress Light quality Drug policy Health Surveillance Standard Shiftwork Index (SSI) Barton et al. 1995 Questionnaires Work Context + Shift System Health Well-being Individual Differences Normative Data Training & Education Survey current work schedule Analyse data health effects performance safety quality of life Identify problem area(s) Recommend schedule changes Shiftworker education Asses & review information & awareness coping methods education lifestyle changes info Intervention strategies Organisation Slow / fast rotation (task considerations) Start times Rest breaks Expert systems Environmental Modification Bright lights Mood lights Temp. compensation Workload Facilities Evaluate process Evaluate outcome Health Surveillance Do what? How often? Individual Adjustment Pharmacological help Behavioural sleep management, diet, exercise, counselling Overtime working Extension of normal workday Extension beyond 8 hours (08:00 / 09:00 - 16:00 / 17:00) Non-paid is still overtime Increasing in UK especially managerial & professional groups 1990 UK had twice as many more employees on >48 hrs than any other EU countries More common in males Percentage of employees working less than 16 and more than 48 hours a week Overtime working (Europe 1990) Percentage of European employees working <16 hrs per week, and > 48 hrs per week, 1990 20 <16 >48 % 10 0 B DK F If graph was males only? G GR NL IRL I LU P E UK AV 0 ILO Turkey S. Korea South Korea Iceland Swiss Switzerland Mexico Hungary Hungary USE Canada Canada Japan Ireland Ireland UK Australia Australia Portugal Greece Greece Italy Spain Spain Denmark France France Germany Norway Norway Sweden Austria Austria Belgium Finland Finland Netherlands Rep. Czech Czech Republic Employees working more than 40 hours a week - % of labour force, 1996 Employers >40hrs per week as % of labour force, 1996 100 Male Female 80 60 40 20 Source: ILO Potential effects cardiovascular mental health Stress immune system gastrointestinal musculoskeletal social effects Fatigue Exposure performance impairment safety problems over-exposure Cardiovascular disorders and overtime Increased Risk > 60hrs > 48hrs Night school students 50 – 60 hrs Overtime (females only) No increased Risk >10 hrs overtime / week “Overtime” BP & Serum Chol. Karoshi Range of CVIs 65%> if 60hrs / wk 1980 SITES WITH MASS PSYCHOGENIC ILLNESS (USA) ? No. of symptoms 1985 KIBBUTZIM (ISRAEL) >8 hrs/ day Smoking 1987 MUSIC THERAPISTS (USA) < 50 Burnout X 1990 BUS DRIVERS (UK) ? Psychiatric Status (Crown Crisp) 1991 COACH DRIVERS (AUSTRALIA) 30-70 Stimulant use/ Sleep disturbance 1992 FEMALE HOSPITAL STAFF (USA) 32-19 Exhaustion/ Insomnia 1994 FACTORY WORKERS (JAPAN) ? Psychiatric State (GHQ) 1995 ACCOUNTANT (UK) ? Psychiatric Status (GHQ) 1991 1995 MANAGERIAL STAFF (USA/JAPAN) ? 50 55 Stress (OSI) 1991 1995 CLERICAL STAFF (USA/JAPAN) ? Stress (OSI) 1996 ACADEMICS 50 Stress (SACL) X Mental Health Health & Well-being: Methodological Issues Mostly Cross-sectional studies Direction of any association Lag Healthy worker / Survivor Effects Response Rates Control Groups Exposure Assessment Outcome Measures Performance Effects: Optimal Productivity Mather 1894 Engineering Weekly hours of 48 - 53 Abbia 1901 Optical Instrument Makers Daily hours of 8/9 max. Vernon 1918 Munitions workers Weekly hours of 50 - 60 Accounts for > degree of munitions errors in WWI ? Performance Effects: Accidents General Data Analyses suggests: Rise in accident rates after 9hrs work Cognitive (simulations) studies suggests errors increase after 8 hrs work HOWEVER Shift change from 8 to 12 hrs Safety record stays same Attitudes ? Safety culture increased ? Schedule org ? Nature of work ? Existing Gaps in Research Irregular Hours Increased concomitant exposure to other hazards Reproductive effects Family / Social influences Behavioural Effects Effect Modifiers Intervention procedures Performance at work Dilemmas Working Hours Shiftwork Mental Distress Dr. Craig Jackson Senior Lecturer in Health Psychology Faculty of Health & Community Care University of Central England Regulation of working hours Linear Assumption units King Nimrod time Pieter Bruegel 1563 Regulation of working hours Linear Assumption remained 1800 – 1900 12 hour days & 6 day weeks Thomas Paine 1737 - 1809 Age of Reason Rights of Man Annie Besant 1847 – 1933 Reformist movement “Fruits of philosophy” Fabian Sciety “The Link” Secular Society “White slavery in London” 1889 Humanitarian concerns influenced change 48 hour week + regular rest = increased productivity Regulation of working hours 1900 – 1970 progressive reduction in working hours traditional work patterns 1970 working hours increase shiftwork increases irregular hours increase 24 hour processing technology unpaid extended hours flexible working annualised hours European directive on working time Organisation of work Min. daily rest period of 11 consecutive hours per 24 hours 1 rest break where working day > 6 hours Min. uninterrupted rest period of 35 hours per 7 day period Max. of 48 work per week Min. 4 weeks paid annual leave European directive on working time Night work Mean 8 hours work in any 24 hour period Free health assessment before assignment and at regular intervals Transfer to day work when suffering health problems connected with night work Night work and shifts Protection appropriate to the nature of the night work Prevention and protection services on parity with day workers Take account of principles adapting work to the workers Derogations Certain jobs junior docs Certain industries press media utility provision Circumstances where rests are not practicable Does not apply to: health checks provision of health and safety facilities Nearly 900 extra consultants will be needed by 2010 compensate for a reduction in doctors’ hours due to EWTD BMJ 2002;325:855 Shiftwork Any work regularly undertaken outside “normal” working hours Normal working hours = 07:00 – 18:00 Nights Early am Evening Fixed Rotating Eight hour Twelve hour Effects Circadian disruption Sleep loss Fatigue Social disruption Circadian Rhythms Body Temp Pulse Urinary excretion Blood pressure Hormonal changes Mental Performance Physical Performance Physiologically determined Socially modified & Externally cued Circadian Rhythms Adjustment to shiftworking Aprrox. 7 days to adjust to shift External cues hamper adjustment Nightworking sometimes never achieves adjustment Slow rotating shifts partial adjustment continual adjustment continual disrhythmia state Rapid rotating shifts no adjustment Adjustment to shiftworking stress strain Phase-shifting of waking and sleeping hours Impaired performance Impaired health Disturbed relationships modifying factors organisational effects > Absenteeism > Accidents > Labour turnover < Productivity Individual characteristics Job-related factors Environment Domestic Colquhoun & Rutenfranz 1980 Cardiovascular problems associated with shiftwork Increased Ischemic Heart Disease (IHD) Knutsson et al. 1986, 1988 Increased risk of IHD and Myocardial Infarction (MI) Akerstedt et al. 1986 Increased risk of Coronary V related disorders – Permanent Nightworkers Teiger 1984 Some studies show NO increased risk Bursey 1990 Chan et al. 1987, 1993 Kobayashi et al. 1992 Cardiovascular problems of shiftwork Liu & Tanaka 2002 – Japanese working men study 260 cases 445 controls Working Hours, Sleeping Hours and Acute MI Working hours related to: increased risk in year prior to AMI increased risk in month prior to AMI x2 increase in risk for overtime (>61 hours) x2-3 increase in risk for <5 hours sleep x2-3 increase for lack of sleep (2 or more days with <5 hours sleep) lack of sleep & few days off in recent past show > odds than those in past Overtime work and lack of sleep may be related to AMI Gastrointestinal disorders and shiftwork Indigestion (Chan et al. 1987) (Poole et al. 1992) Reflux Peptic Ulceration (Waterhouse et al. 1992) Related to: irregular hours circadian dysrhythmia poor catering facilities inequality in GP access Gastrointestinal disorders and shiftwork Irritable Bowel Syndrome (IBS) 13-52% new referrals to GI (Walker et al. 1990) Some occupations have > G.I than others (Cucino & Sonnenburg, 2001) IBD < in manual workers and farmers IBD > in sedentary workers Assoc. with occupation difficult to prove • shift workers seen as greatest risk of IBS • especially nightworkers • night workers present in GI more than day workers Access / Availability reasons ? Research fails to answer: genuine aspects ? psychosocial aspects of workers ? effects of shiftwork lifestyle ? Mental health problems and shiftwork Increased stress Alcohol consumption Neuroticism Review by Cole et al. 1990 OM Sources of performance impairment Day sleepers Endogenous factors Cortisol > Temp. > Exogenous factors Daylight Noise Societal bias Endogenous factors Melatonin > Temp. < Exogenous factors Darkness Societal bias Night wakers Current evidence Performance impairments more likely: on nightshift vs. morning or evening on advancing shifts vs. delaying shifts on rapid rotating shifts vs. slower rotation on irregular shifts regular shifts vs. at changeover periods in older shiftworkers where work is stressful Inconsistencies: 12 hour shifts Sex Additional Factors Effecting Performance STABLE FACTORS Age Education Sex Socio-economic Language Handedness Computer experience Caffeine (habitual use) Alcohol (habitual use) Nicotine (habitual use) Medication (habitual use) Paints, glues, pesticides (habitual use) Diabetes Epilepsy Other CNS / PNS disease Head injury (out >1 hr) Alcohol / drug addiction Physical activity SITUATIONAL FACTORS Alcohol (recent use) Caffeine (recent use) Nicotine (recent use) Medication (recent use) Paints, glues, pesticides (recent) Near visual acuity Restricted movement (injury) Cold / flu Stress Arousal / Fatigue Sleep Screen luminance Time of day Time of year Further Reading Cooper, C.L., and Sutherland, V.J: Job Stress, Mental Health and Accidents among Offshore Workers in Oil and Gas extraction Industries. Journal of Occupational Medicine (1987) 29. Gann, M., Corpe, U., and Wilson, I. (1990) The Application of a Short Anxiety and Depression Questionnaire to Oil Industry Staff. Journal of the Society of Occupational Medicine 40: Glazner, L.K. Shift Work and its effects on fire fighters and nurses. Occupational Health & Safety, July 1992 Hanecke, K., Tiedemann, S., Nachreiner, F., and Grzech-Sukalo, H: Accident risk as a function of hour at work and time of day as determined from accident data and exposure models for the German working population. Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment and Health (1998) 24(3). Further Reading Harrington, J.M., Shiftwork and health: a critical review of the literature. London, The Stationary Office, 1978. Harrington, JM. (2001) Health effects of shift work and extended hours of work. Occup Environ Med 58: 68-72. Jackson,C.A. (2002) Working hours and shifts in the petrochemical and gas industries: a review. Croner’s Occupational Hygiene 34: 13-17. Jackson,C.A., Spurgeon,A. and DeJong.G Mental Health of expatriate oil workers on extended twelve hour shifts in a desert-based oil field. Society of Petroleum Engineers. SPE 61016. Lees, R., and Laundry, B.R. Comparison of reported workplace morbidity in 8hour and 12-hour shifts in one plant. Journal of the Society of Occupational Medicine (1989) 39. Further Reading Lodden, T., The Effect on the Health and Safety of Older Offshore Personnel Long Shifts and Working Night Shift. Society of Petroleum Engineers. SPE 60996. Parkes, K.R.: Sleep patterns, Shift work, and Individual Differences: A Comparison of Onshore and Offshore Control-Room Operators. Ergonomics (1994) 37(5). Rosa, R.R: Performance, alertness, and sleep after 3.5 years of 12 hour shifts: a follow-up study. Work and Stress (1991) 5(2). Spurgeon A, Harrington JM, Cooper CL. (1997) Health and safety problems associated with long working hours: a review of the current position. Occup Environ Med; 54:367-375.