Transcript Thinking and Language - Eric Sweetwood's PTHS Psychology

Thinking and Language
I Think; therefore I am.
I Talk; therefore I am ignored.
Thinking and Language
• Thinking involves processing information
using mental representations such as
creating and organizing mental images
and critically analyzing their meaning.
There are various kinds of critical thinking,
wherein we consciously direct our mental
processes toward goals such as
reasoning, solving problems and making
judgments
Thinking and Language
• The Brain
Types of Thinking
• Analysis: Breaking large complex concepts into
smaller and simpler forms; break down wholes
to parts
• Synthesis: Combining and integrating two or
more processes or concepts into a more
complex form; put parts together into wholes
• Divergent Thinking: Generating a number of
diverse ideas or alternative solutions to a
problem
• Convergent Thinking: Taking many ideas and
converging them into a single idea or answer to
a problem
Thinking
• Often the goal is problem-solving, in which
mental processes are used to overcome
obstacles to arrive at a solution. This
usually involves reasoning, drawing
conclusions from evidence and judgment
and decision-making wherein we evaluate
various possibilities and choose the most
suitable option.
Thinking
Problem Solving
• When we face a mental challenge in which there
is a goal to overcome obstacles, we are
engaging in problem-solving. Generally we use
a common method of problem-solving. We 1)
identify the problem, 2) define the problem, 3)
explore possible plans or strategies 4) choose a
strategy 5) utilize resources to act on the chosen
plan 6) monitor the problem-solving process and
7) evaluate the solution.
Two types of thinking
Problem Solving
• If it is a well-structured problem, there is
usually a clear path to find a solution. With
ill-structured problems, often called
"insight problems", no easy solution arises
and we generally have to think a lot about
the problem until we have a sudden insight
and the solution becomes clear to us.
Problem Solving
Problem Solving
• In well-structured problem-solving, we generally
use one of two kinds of strategies:
• Heuristics – informal, speculative, intuitive
mental shortcuts such as trial and error or using
strategies that worked on similar problems; one
selectively tests solutions most likely to be
correct – can be helpful and are quicker, but do
not guarantee they will lead to a solution
Heuristics
Problem Solving
• Algorithms – formal, step by step
strategies to lead to a solution, such as
repeating a series of steps to balance a
checkbook or solve a math problem;
however many problems do not have
algorithms that generate solutions
Algorithms
Problem Solving
• Ill-structured problems require insight to see the
problem in a new way. You cannot solve them
with clever algorithms but must develop a whole
new strategy. Some take the "nothing special
view" of insight, believing it is merely an
extension of ordinary perceiving, recognizing,
learning and conceiving. The "three-process
view" contends that insight occurs when people
selectively encode relevant information,
compare relationships between old and new
information and selectively combine old and new
relevant information to solve problems.
New strategies
Problem Solving
• Productive thinking, typical of creative
people, involves novel combinations of
ideas and insights. Reproductive thinking
uses existing ideas and associations
between those ideas. Creative people
generate new ideas and insights that do
not rely on simply making use of what
already exists. Often insights come when
we free ourselves of assumptions that
impede our solving the problems.
Creative people
Problem Solving
• Some of these problematic assumptions
are:
• Mental Sets: old ways of thinking, existing
models, that become frames of mind that
blind us to a new strategy.
Problem Solving
• Functional Fixedness: inability to see how
something could be used in a novel or
alternative way to solve a problem
Problem Solving
Problem Solving
• Confirmation Bias: the tendency to
selectively seek and choose information
that support our bias and to ignore other
knowledge.
Problem Solving:
Confirmation Bias
Problem Solving
• Irrelevant Information: tendency to include
too much information that does not relate
to the problem.
Irrelevant Information
Problem Solving
• Negative Transfer: the carryover from prior
experience with seemingly similar
problems that impedes thinking in new
ways
Problem Solving
• Cognitive psychologists have also developed
understanding of two positive influences on
problem solving including:
• Positive Transfer: the facilitation of problemsolving by having solved similar problems
• Incubation: the facilitation of problem-solving
through putting aside the problem after intense
scrutiny so that new insights can emerge
• Expertise and knowledge in an area also add to
problem-solving capabilities as experts know
more and can organize the information more
efficiently.
Expertise and Knowledge
Judgment and Decision-Making
• Judgment and Decision-Making are
cognitive processes we use to evaluate
numerous alternatives so we may select
the best option. Our decisions are often
based on problematic thinking strategies
that include personal biases and mental
shortcuts that impede our making ideal
decisions in our lives.
Judgment and Decision-Making
Judgment and Decision-Making
Strategies that hinder good
judgment
• Bounded Rationality: Humans by nature
are not always rational, but bounded by
limited rationality due to our often irrational
and emotional nature.
• Satisfying: Often we choose the first
acceptable, satisfactory, alternative rather
than consider all the possibilities.
Bounded Rationality?
Strategies that hinder good
judgment
• Elimination by Aspects: When faced with a great
number of alternatives, we often focus on one or
two aspects rather than all options available.
• Heuristics, mental shortcuts, and Personal
Biases of Judgment also limit and distort our
ability to make good rational decisions. We tend
to use mental shortcuts and personal biases that
distort and limit our abilities to make sound
judgments.
Elimination by Aspects
Thinking problems include:
• The Availability Heuristic: cognitive shortcut that
relies on what comes to mind easily, a quick
answer that may not include alternatives
• Representativeness: assumption that judgments
made based on a typical member of a category
will be true for all members of the category
• Overconfidence: being overly trustful of our own
skills, knowledge or judgment
Overconfidence
The Formal Process of Reasoning
• Reasoning is a formal process wherein we draw
conclusions based on evidence. Two distinct
types are:
• Inductive Reasoning – proceeds from specific
facts or observations and leads to a probable
general conclusion that explains the facts
• Deductive Reasoning – proceeds from general
statements to a probable specific conclusion
The Formal Process of Reasoning
Language
• Infants spontaneously create speech sounds
and begin cooing, making phoneme sounds
heard in all languages. They begin babbling,
using repetitive, rhythmic speech including their
own language phonemes around 4 months of
age. They begin holophrastic speech, one word
communication and move around 18 months to
telegraphic speech, short sentences resembling
a short telegram, using content words to convey
meaning with few function words.
Language
Language
• Semantics is the study of meanings of words in
a language. Linguistic meanings take two forms:
• Denotation – the strict dictionary definition of a
word and
• Connotation – the emotional overtone or
nonexplicit meaning understood by how a word
is used
• Syntax is the study of language structure, how
words are put together in a particular order to
create meaningful sentences. Grammar is the
study of the regular patterns of language use.
Connotation: What is Cool?
Language
• Pragmatics is the study of how people use language.
Sociolinguistics studies how people use language in
social interaction.
• The linguistic-relativity hypothesis proposes that different
languages cause people to think and perceive the world
differently. Cross-cultural studies of languages have also
found linguistic universals, characteristic patterns found
in all languages. Others study bilinguals, people who can
speak two languages, to see if bilinguals think differently
from people who speak one language. Cognitive
psychology is focusing a lot of research on the
relationships between thought and language and how we
use language in social interaction.
Sources
• Santa Fe Community College:
http://inst.santafe.cc.fl.us/~mwehr/CrsMast
r.htm
• From the Mind of Sweetwood