Transcript Conclusion - Walsh Car Lines

1
Summary (I)
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The proposed levels of sulphur in EU petrol for 2000 will make it
difficult to further reduce automobile emissions with currently
available technologies
Sulphur has a negative effect on the performance of 3-way catalytic
converters and thereby increases the emissions of CO, HC
(hydrocarbons) and NOx from petrol driven automobiles - however,
the catalytic converter returns to full efficiency if sulphur content is
subsequently reduced
The proposed standard of 200 ppm sulphur in petrol will:


inhibit the introduction of currently available gasoline direct injection (GDI)
engines with systems for lean NOx reduction
–
it has been reported that GDI engines can reduce petrol
consumption by up to 35%
–
GDI engines have already been introduced in Japan because
current market levels of sulphur in petrol are less than 50 ppm
significantly increase the emissions from vehicles which can meet
California low and ultra low emission standards (LEV and ULEV) and
1
1
Summary (II)
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The proposed standard of 350 ppm sulphur in diesel will inhibit the
introduction of technologies to reduce emissions from diesel driven
road transport

The retro-fit of trucks/automobiles with currently available oxidation catalysts and
filters can reduce CO and HC emissions by around 50-70% and Particle Matter
(PM) emissions by over 90% - however, diesel with a sulphur content less than
75 ppm is required

The introduction of DeNOx catalysts under current development, which have the
potential of reducing NOx emissions by at least 30%, presently require a diesel
with a sulphur content less than 50ppm
2
1
Summary (III)
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On the short term, there are environmental and human health benefits
which can be gained if there is a further reduction of sulphur levels in
road transport fuels

Reducing sulphur limits in petrol from 200 to 50 ppm will further reduce CO, HC
and NOx emissions by around 3-5%

Reducing sulphur limits in diesel from 350 to 50 ppm will further reduce PM
emissions by 5-8 % from Heavy Duty Vehicles (HDV)
According to estimates of unit economic damage(ECU per tonne
emitted) derived in other EU studies, the cost benefit in terms of
improved human health and reduced building damage are estimated
between 400 -700 million ECUs a year
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2
Sulphur’s Affect on Emissions - Automobiles (petrol)
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The Auto/Oil study concluded that sulphur influences HC, CO and NOx
emissions, but has no effect on CO2 emissions or fuel consumption

The effects are linear and can be predicted well

A reduction of sulphur from 382 to 18 ppm in petrol (Auto/Oil test fuels) reduced
emissions over the composite test cycle (cold start, city and highway driving)

HC 0.015 g/km or 8.6%

CO
0.113 g/km or 9.0%

NOx
0.019 g/km or 10%

In an extra urban driving test cycle (warm catalyst) reductions were even larger,
but there were larger vehicle to vehicle variations and a higher dependence on
sulphur fuel content

HC 0.015 g/km or 52%

CO
0.067 g/km or 43%

NOx
0.027 g/km or 20%
Source:
Auto/Oil Programme: European Programme on Emissions, Fuels and Engine Technologies
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2
Sulphur’s Affect on Emissions - Automobiles (petrol)
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Sulphur fuel content effects emissions by decreasing catalyst
conversion efficiencies

Sulphur competes for active surface area sites on the catalyst

Palladium catalysts, which are more effective in removing HC and
expensive, are more sensitive to sulphur fuel content

Sulphur’s effect on catalytic efficiency is not permanent, the catalyst can return
to near optimum levels once it is subjected to low sulphur fuels and higher
temperatures (>700°C)

There is contradictory evidence that sulphur increases the light-off temperature
(i.e. the temperature at which the catalyst begins operating)
Source:
less
Auto/Oil Programme: European Programme on Emissions, Fuels and Engine Technologies;
Appendix: Sulphur in Fuels: Benefits of Sulphur Reduction; 3. Sulphur’s affect on catalyst performance
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2
Sulphur’s Affect on Emissions - Automobiles (petrol)
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The proposed sulphur and other specifications were derived after a
lengthy programme which was initiated in 1991
P a ra m e te r
U n it
M a rke t
a v e ra g e
w ith o u t
p ro p o s a l
P ro p o s e d
s p e c ific a tio n s *
(y e a r 2 0 0 0 )
RVP Sum m er
kPa
68
58
E 1 0 0 (m in )
% v /v
53
46
E 1 5 0 (m in )
% v /v
84
84
O le fin s
% v /v
11
18
A ro m a tic s
% v /v
40
45
Ben zen e
% v /v
2 .3
2 .0
O xygen
% m /m
0 .6
2 .3
S u lp h u r
ppm
300
200
Lead
g /l
0 .0 0 5
0 .0 0 5
1 0
* m a x im u m va lu e s , u n le ss s ta te d o th e rw is e
6
2
Sulphur’s Affect on Emissions - Automobiles (petrol)
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Reductions in CO, HC and NOx emissions can be expected if sulphur
is reduced in petrol
Calculated emission reductions of CO, HC and NOx from automobiles:
Composite cycle
S u lp h u r co n te n t
in fu e l
%  fro m
b a se ca se
%  fro m
b a se ca se
%  fro m
b a se ca se
(p p m )
CO
HC
NOx
300
1 .6 1
0 .1 7 6
0 .1 7 8
co m m e n ts:
B a se e m iss io n v a lu e s (g /km )*
m a rk e t a v e ra g e w ith o u t p ro p o s a l
200
-2 .1 %
-2 .4 %
-2 .9 %
re d u cin g o n ly su lp h u r
(to 2 0 0 p p m )
200
-4 .1 %
-4 .2 %
-4 .7 %
p ro p o s e d s p e cifica tio n s
100
-6 .0 %
-6 .5 %
-7 .6 %
p ro p o s e d s p e cifica tio n s;
su lp h u r re d u c e d to 1 0 0 p p m
50
-7 .0 %
-7 .6 %
-9 .1 %
p ro p o s e d s p e cifica tio n s;
su lp h u r re d u c e d to 5 0 p p m
30
-7 .4 %
-8 .1 %
-9 .7 %
p ro p o s e d s p e cifica tio n s;
su lp h u r re d u c e d to 3 0 p p m
1 0
*Base emissions were calculated using the composite emission model derived from the regression analysis in the
Auto/Oil program and the proposed EU parameters for petrol.
Changes in emissions were calculated using the sulphur regression equations derived in the composite test cycles.
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2
Sulphur’s Affect on Emissions - Automobiles (petrol)
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The impact is greatest in the extra urban driving cycle since the
catalyst is warm
Calculated emission reductions of CO, HC and NOx from automobiles:
Extra Urban Driving Sequence (EUDC)
S u lp h u r co n te n t
in fu e l
%  fro m
b a se ca se
%  fro m
b a se ca se
%  fro m
b a se ca se
(p p m )
CO
HC
NOx
300
0 .2 3
0 .0 2 8
0 .0 9 3
co m m e n ts:
B a se e m iss io n v a lu e s (g /km )*
m a rk e t a v e ra g e w ith o u t p ro p o s a l
200
-8 .0 %
-1 5 %
-7 .9 %
re d u cin g o n ly su lp h u r
(to 2 0 0 p p m )
200
7 .0 %
-8 .3 %
-1 9 %
p ro p o s e d s p e cifica tio n s
100
-1 .0 %
-2 4 %
-2 7 %
p ro p o s e d s p e cifica tio n s;
su lp h u r re d u c e d to 1 0 0 p p m
50
-5 .0 %
-3 1 %
-3 1 %
p ro p o s e d s p e cifica tio n s;
su lp h u r re d u c e d to 5 0 p p m
30
-6 .6 %
-3 4 %
-3 3 %
p ro p o s e d s p e cifica tio n s;
su lp h u r re d u c e d to 3 0 p p m
1 0
*Base emissions were calculated using the EUDC emission model derived from the regression analysis in the
Auto/Oil program and the proposed EU parameters for petrol.
Changes in emissions were calculated using the sulphur regression equations derived in the EUDC test cycles.
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2
Sulphur's Affect on Emissions - Trucks (Diesel)
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Auto/Oil synthesised existing data and the linear relationship between
sulphur content in diesel and PM emissions was determined
Percent reduction
in PM em issions
per 100 ppm
sulphur content
Percent reduction
in PM em issions
per 100 ppm
sulphur content
Light Duty
Vehicles
Heavy Duty
Vehicles
(without catalyst)
(without catalyst)
-0.16%
-0.87%
(with catalyst)
(with catalyst)

sulphur fuel content ranged
between 500 and 2000 ppm

PM emissions ranged
between 0.18 - 0.40 g/kWh
for HDV

several different type of
engines

assumed constant fuel
consumption
not estim ated
-1.5%
10
Source:
Auto/Oil Programme: European Programme on Emissions, Fuels and Engine Technologies;
Appendix: Sulphur in Fuels: Benefits of Sulphur Reduction; 1. Auto/Oil and ACEA sulphur correction formulas
9
2
Sulphur’s Affect on Emissions - Trucks (Diesel)
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A recent draft report by ACEA* recommends that the Auto/Oil sulphur
correction formula for heavy engines should be modified

The Auto/Oil correction formula is only suitable for the ranges in which data was
analysed - PM levels between 0.15 and 0.4 g/kWh and sulphur fuel levels
between 500 and 2000 ppm

Current and proposed levels in the EU are outside the range studied in the
Auto/Oil programme


Since October, 1996, sulphur content in diesel is regulated to 500 ppm

PM emissions from HDV are currently regulated to 0.15 g/kWh (EURO II)
The ACEA report contends that

the Auto/Oil correction formula is not accurate enough to predict the
influence of sulphur fuel content of 10 to 500 ppm on particulate levels
between 0.05 and 0.15 g/kWh

differences in fuel consumption need to be considered when correcting for
nominal sulphur fuel content
*Influence of Diesel Fuel Quality on Heavy Duty Diesel Engine Emissions, Draft Report, European Automobile
Manufacturers Association
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2
Sulphur’s Affect on Emissions - Trucks (Diesel)
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ACEA has developed a more accurate HDV sulphur correction formula to be
used at sulphur levels below 500 ppm and PM emissions below 0.15 g/kWh
PM
2
 P M 1 * (B S FC * 9.1 7 * 1 0
8
Particulate
Cycle weighted
Sulphur to
emissions at brake specific fuel
sulphate
S1 level
consumption
conversion factor
(g/kWh)
(g/kWh)
* (S 1  S 2 )
Sulphur content
of fuels
(ppm)
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2
Sulphur’s Affect on Emissions - Trucks (Diesel)
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Estimates of PM reductions from HDV can vary significantly between the
two models
Correction of PM emissions to sulphur content in diesel
(BSFC = 270 g/kWh; PM = 0.10 g/kWh)
0 ,1 0 0
PM2 - Auto/Oil sulphur correction formula
0 ,0 9 5
9% reduction in
PM emissions
S2 = 10 ppm
PM2 - ACEA sulphur correction formula
0 ,0 9 0
25% reduction in
PM emissions
S2 = 10 ppm
PM2
(g/kWh)
0 ,0 8 5
0 ,0 8 0
500
400
300
200
S1 - S2 (ppm)
100
-
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2
Sulphur’s Affect on Emissions - Trucks (Diesel)
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Using the ACEA sulphur correction formula indicates that a 2-3 times larger
reduction in particle emissions can be expected by reducing sulphur levels
Estimations of particle emission reductions using the
Auto/Oil and ACEA sulphur correction equations
(BSFC = 200 - 270 g/kWh; PM = 0.10 g/kWh)
S u lp h u r
c o n te n t in
fu e l
(p p m )
R e d u ctio n o f P M
e m is s io n s
(A u to /O il s u lp h u r
c o rre c tio n )
R e d u c tio n o f P M
e m iss io n s
(A C E A s u lp h u r
c o rre c tio n )
5 0 0 (S 1)
c o m m e n ts:
C u rre n t E U s ta n d a rd
350
1 .3 %
2 .8 -3 .7 %
200
2 .6 %
5 .5 -7 .4 %
100
3 .5 %
7 .3 -9 .9 %
50
3 .9 %
8 .3 -1 1 %
10
4 .3 %
9 .0 -1 2 %
P ro p o s e d E U s ta n d a rd
1 0
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2
Sulphur’s Affect on Emissions - Trucks (Diesel)
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The application of the ACEA sulphur correction formula suggests a greater
degree of freedom for certain engines in the NOx “Trade off”curves
NOx
(g/kWh)
I LLU STRAT I V E
Fuel1
Fuel2 - Auto/Oil
Fuel2 - ACEA
Fuel Consumption, CO2 , PM
(g/kWh)
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3
New Technologies in Engine Design and Pollution Abatement Devices
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It is the automotive and catalyst producers’ opinion that sulphur
content greater than 50 ppm in both petrol and diesel inhibits the
implementation of new technologies
Technologies Reportedly Inhibited by Sulphur in Fuels

Gasoline Direct Injection (GDI) engine technolo

Lean NOx or (DeNOx) catalysts for GDI and die

Continuous Regenerating Trap (CRT) for HDV e

Filters and/or oxidation catalyst for diesel engin
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3
New Technologies in Engine Design and Pollution Abatement Devices
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Commercially available GDI technology* represents a major
breakthrough for greatly reducing fuel consumption in automobiles

The fuel is directly injected into the cylinder, this allows for quicker and more
precise control of air to fuel ratios

In GDI engines pumping losses are reduced under light loads, boosting fuel
economy

Since the fuel supply is more precisely controlled combustion can occur at much
higher air to fuel ratios (> 40:1)

Since GDI engines are less susceptible to knocking, they run at higher
compression ratios, this provides more torque at low- to mid - rpm ranges, this
also aids fuel economy
*Not considered in the technology package for determining cost effective strategies for reducing emissions from road
vehicles for the year 2010. Final Report: A Cost Effective Study of the Various Measures likely to Reduce Pollutant
Emissions from Road Transport for the Year 2010, Touch Ross & Co., November 1995, European Commission.
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New Technologies in Engine Design and Pollution Abatement Devices
Swed Gov’t cost ben 970203
However, new catalytic converter technology is needed since GDI engines
produces significantly higher NOx emissions than conventional automobiles



Current catalytic converter technology requires an
exact air to fuel stoichiometry in order to guarantee
a 99% percent reduction in HC, CO and NOx
emissions. GDI and Diesel engines run at much
higher air to fuel ratios
Any increase in the air to fuel stoichiometry, as in
diesel or GDI engine technology, inhibits the
catalytic converter from reducing NOx since the
higher oxygen levels will decrease CO levels
Catalytic Converter Chemistry
(illustrative)

C O  O 2    C O 2

H C  O 2    H 2 O  C O 2

N O  C O    N 2  C O 2
While the combustion process at high air to fuel
ratios produces significantly less NOx, it is the
ineffectiveness of the 3-way catalytic converter to
remove NOx which results in higher emissions
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3
New Technologies in Engine Design and Pollution Abatement Devices
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The major challenge for automotive and catalyst manufacturers is to
reduce NOx under conditions of excess oxygen

Lean NOx or (DeNOx) catalysts are being
developed which create a fuel rich microclimate where hydrocarbons in the exhausts
reduce NOx to nitrogen

A DeNOx catalyst will require changes in the
structural properties of the catalyst surface

Three basic systems are being developed

Passive - where no reductant is
added

Active - where 2 - 3% additional fuel
is added upstream of the catalyst

Adsorption - NOx is selectively
adsorbed and stored until the catalyst
is ready to convert it
Studies have shown that high
sulphur fuel content will greatly
reduce the effectiveness of the
catalyst
DeNOx systems currently under
development require fuels with
sulphur content less than 50 ppm
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3
New Technologies in Engine Design and Pollution Abatement Devices
Swed Gov’t cost ben 970203
Mitsubishi and Toyota have successfully introduced GDI automobiles
in Japan because sulphur content in petrol is approximately 30 ppm

30 - 35% better fuel consumption

95 - 97% reduction of NOx emissions

NOx reduction is accomplished through a
high Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR)
techniques and newly developed
DeNOx catalysts

The EGR and DeNOx catalyst requires
low sulphur fuels

EGR - to prevent sulphur
corrosion in the engine

DeNOx catalyst sulphur forms an impenetrable
barrier on the active surface area
A“Gentleman’s agreement”
has resulted in market
levels of sulphur in petrol of
approximately 30 ppm
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New Technologies in Engine Design and Pollution Abatement Devices
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Toyota’s GDI engine employs a NOx storage reduction catalytic converter
combined with EGR technology



At high air to fuel ratios NO is
converted to NO2 by platinum
catalysts and temporarily stored
NOx storage
NOx reduction
NOx engine
emissions
When the engine runs at
stoichiometry the NO2 is released to
mix with HC and CO to be
catalytically converted to N2
exhaust from
catalytic converter
At 1,200 rpm with 40% EGR,
a 95% decrease in NOx emissions
is obtained
Lean burn
range
Stoichiometric
range
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3
New Technologies in Engine Design and Pollution Abatement Devices
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California has recently introduced a new reformulated gasoline with a 30
ppm sulphur content to ensure the proper functioning of LEV technology

The extremely low sulphur level is to ensure
that LEV and ULEV pollution abatement
devices work correctly

According to Ford higher sulphur levels in
fuels disrupts the proper functioning of
onboard diagnostic equipment

Ford reports that sulphur effects are larger for
LEV and ULEV vehicles than with traditional
pollution abatement equipment
California has been the
most pro-active state in
the US in reducing
emissions from road
transport
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New Technologies in Engine Design and Pollution Abatement Devices
Swed Gov’t cost ben 970203
Oxidation catalysts alone or combined with particulate filters can be retrofitted on to diesel vehicles but require sulphur diesel content under 75 ppm

Over 1,000 buses and trucks have been fitted in Scandinavia with oxidation catalysts,
filters or CRT (Continuous Regenerating Trap) packages

Both technique reduces CO and HC emissions, CRT also greatly reduces particulate
emissions

While the catalyst does not remove particles it removes the organic material which
contributes to particle mass

Ceramic wall flow filters have been developed which can remove up to 90% of the
particulates contained in diesel exhausts

Filter regeneration techniques include

fuel additives

catalytic coatings to initiate particulate combustion

combining filters with oxidising catalyst upstream (CRT) - NO2 levels are
increased in the exhaust which in turn “burns-off” the particles on the filters
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New Technologies in Engine Design and Pollution Abatement Devices
Swed Gov’t cost ben 970203
There are over 1800 CRT units in operation in Europe

Reductions of CO, HC and PM by
over 90% is achieved

Sulphur content in diesel must be
lower than 75 ppm

Long-term engine tests in
Scandinavia have shown that
there are no apparent negative
effects on engine wear

No HDV manufacturer sanctions
the retro-fitting of CRT technology
on existing vehicles or offers it as
extra equipment on new units

No external muffler is needed
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External Environmental Cost Benefits
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The external costs of air pollution has been estimated in other EU projects*

The purpose of the ExternE project was to develop a unified methodology for
quantifying the environmental impact and social costs associated with the production
and combustion of energy

External costs are defined as costs associated with an activity of a group on a second
group which are not fully accounted for by the first group (e.g.):

health effect costs for senior citizens from truck transport in cities

–
corrosion effects on buildings from power generation
–
crop damage from road transport
In the cost benefit study, Coopers & Lybrand summarised the data from the ExternE
project into units of economic value damage (ECU per tonne pollutant; net present
costs) for airborne NOx and PM from transport for each country in EU-12
* European Commission, DGXII - ExternE, 1995.
*European Commission, DGXI - Cost Benefit Analysis of the Different Municipal Solid Waste Management Systems:
Objectives and Instruments for the Year 2000, Final Report, Coopers & Lybrand, March 1996
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External Environmental Cost Benefits
Swed Gov’t cost ben 970203
There are large uncertainties in determining the true costs of air
pollution
Emissions
• uncertainties in
calculating emissions
from road transport
Dispersion
(concentration)
Impact on
receptors
• uncertainties in appointing
the source of pollutants
• uncertainties in the
dose response functions
- inherent uncertainties
associated with air pollution
dispersion models
•receptors (e.g.):
- population
- crops
- buildings
- forests and rivers
Costs
• uncertainties
associated with the
actual costs
associated with the
response
- health care costs
• uncertainties in the
current value of
receptors
-the value of human
life
-costs associated
with “nonproductive”
individuals
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External Environmental Cost Benefits
Swed Gov’t cost ben 970203
There are three important valuation techniques for estimating the costs of
pollution from road transport
V a lu a tio n T e c h n iq u e
D o se - R e sp o n se
A v e r tin g B e h a v io u r
R e p la c e m e n t C o s t
( c le a n - u p )
da m a ge
re sp o n se
cost of
re sponse
h u m a n h e a lth
m e d ic a l
tre a tm e n t
m e d ic a l
e xp enses
cro p d a m a g e
re d u ce d o u tp u t
(to n n e )
m a rk e t va lu e o f
th e c ro p
p o te n tia l
cha nge
r e s p o n s e to
a v o id c h a n g e
cost of
a v o id a n c e
a cid ific a tio n o f
la k e s o r s o ils
lim in g to a v o id
a c id ific a tio n
c o s ts o f lim in g
da m a ge
a c tiv it y to
r e s to r e to
o r ig in a l
c o n d itio n
cost of
r e p la c e m e n t
b u ild in g
dam age
re s to ra tio n
c o s ts o f
re s to ra tio n
1 0
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External Environmental Cost Benefits
Swed Gov’t cost ben 970203
Effects on human health represent the largest proportion of unit
damage costs estimates
% of
dam age
cost
e s t im a te
% of
dam age
cost
e s tim a t e
% of
dam age
cost
e s tim a t e
SO 2
NOX
P M T r ans por t
H e a lt h
87%
90%
97%
B a s e d o n th e v a l u e o f s ta ti s ti c a l h u m a n
l i fe ( V O S L ) , m e d i c a l e x p e n s e s , v a l u e o f
w o r k d a y s l o s t a n d W i l l i n g n e s s to P a y
( W T P ) to a v o i d re s p i r a to r y s y m p to m s .
B u ild in g s
10%
10%
3%
B a s e d o n th e c o s t o f r e p a i r a n d
m a i n te n a n c e o f d a m a g e d b u i l d i n g s a n d
m a te ri a l . H i s to r i c a l a n d c u l tu ra l
b u i l d i n g s h a v e h i g h e r c o s ts .
C ro p s
3%
< 0 .1 %
B a s e d o n th e d a m a g e c o s t d u e to
a c i d i fy i n g p o l l u ta n ts (c r o p y i e l d l o s s a t
i n te r n a ti o n a l m a r k e t p r i c e s ) .
F o re st
< 0 .1 %
< 0 .1 %
B a s e d o n th e m a rk e t v a l u e o f ti m b e r
g r o w th a t U K p ri c e s .
W a te r
< 0 .1 %
< 0 .1 %
B a s e d o n th e c o s ts o f l i m i n g o f S w e d i s h
la k e s .
c o m m e n ts :
1 0
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External Environmental Cost Benefits
Swed Gov’t cost ben 970203
Unit economic values for damage in Europe per pollutant emitted in each
country (ECU per tonne emitted) was estimated as follows
C o u n try
SO 2
NO x
P M tr ans por t
B e lg iu m
6 369
4 317
7 925
D e n m a rk
4 532
3 466
7 913
F ra n c e
6 175
4 241
7 821
G e rm a n y
6 279
4 329
7 458
G re e c e
3 191
2 400
5 892
Ire la n d
3 366
2 541
6 843
Ita ly
4 268
3 642
7 627
L u x e m b o u rg
7 252
4 771
7 949
T h e N e th e rla n d s
5 329
3 888
7 539
P o rtu g u l
5 107
3 946
6 278
S p a in
4 662
3 704
6 848
UK
4 338
3 077
7 522
C O = 9 E C U /to n n e
H C = 1 .9 * C O = 1 7 E C U /to n n e
C O 2 = 4 E C U /to n n e
28
4
External Environmental Cost Benefits
Swed Gov’t cost ben 970203
The estimated benefit in terms of externalised costs of a reduction in
sulphur fuel content is between 400 - 700 million ECUs per year*
E m is s io n
S c e n a rio
P M T r ans por t
( m illio n E C U )
D ie s e l
Nox
Nox
( 3 % r e d u c tio n )
( 5 % r e d u c tio n )
(m illio n E C U )
( m illio n E C U )
360
600
66
3 0 0 p p m re d u c tio n in
s u lp h u r
(P M = 0 .1 0 g /k W h ;
B S F C = 2 3 5 g /k W h )
P e tr o l
7 5 p p m re d u c tio n in
s u lp h u r
1 0
*Calculated for the current vehicle park. If sulphur levels are reduced, new emission reduction
technologies can be introduced and subsequent costs benefits will be different.
29
Sulphur in Fuels - Benefits of Sulphur Reduction
Swed Gov’t cost ben 970203
Table of contents
1
Summary
2
Sulphur’s Effect on Emissions
3
New Technologies in Engine Design and Pollution Abatement Devices
4
External Environmental Cost Benefits
30
Sulphur in Fuels - Benefits of Sulphur Reduction
Swed Gov’t cost ben 970203
Table of contents
1
Summary
2
Sulphur’s Effect on Emissions
3
New Technologies in Engine Design and Pollution Abatement Devices
4
External Environmental Cost Benefits
31
Sulphur in Fuels - Benefits of Sulphur Reduction
Swed Gov’t cost ben 970203
Table of contents
1
Summary
2
Sulphur’s Effect on Emissions
3
New Technologies in Engine Design and Pollution Abatement Devices
4
External Environmental Cost Benefits
32
Sulphur in Fuels - Benefits of Sulphur Reduction
Swed Gov’t cost ben 970203
Table of contents
1
Summary
2
Sulphur’s Effect on Emissions
3
New Technologies in Engine Design and Pollution Abatement Devices
4
External Environmental Cost Benefits
33
Swed Gov’t cost ben 970203
Sulphur in Fuels Benefits of Sulphur
Reduction
Final Report
February 12, 1997
Swedish and Finnish
Governments
Arthur D. Little AB
Box 70434
107 25 Stockholm
Telephone +46 8 698 30 00
Telefax +46 8 698 30 02
34