Transcript www2.oregonrti.org
Supporting Students with Additional Needs in an RTI System
Jon Potter, Ph.D.
Lisa Bates, Ph.D.
David Putnam, Ph.D.
Oregon RTI Project OSPA Conference, Fall 2012
Afternoon Targets
Tier 2/3: Using data to place students in interventions (literacy) & evaluating intervention effectiveness Tier 3: Individual Problem Solving
What is your role in ensuring the right students receive the right support at the right time?
School Psychologists’ Role
“RTI calls for behavioral needs, classroom teachers and special education personnel and parents, and a systemic commitment to locating and employing the necessary resources to ensure that students make progress in the general education curriculum.” early identification of learning and close collaboration among
- NASP School Psych Role and RTI Fact Sheet
Assessment Consultation Program Evaluation
Using screening data to match interventions to student need (Literacy)
Which students receive interventions?
• Schoolwide/Districtwide decision rules should determine which students will receive additional support – – Based on schoolwide screening data (DIBELS, easyCBM, AIMSWEB, etc) Based on available resources and system capacity • Lowest 20%? 30%?
• All student
well below benchmark
?
Assessment
easyCBM Decision Rules guide placement in interventions Lowest 25% Lowest 20% All High Risk
Lowest 20% DIBELS Next Lowest 25% All below and well below benchmark 60 2 nd Grade Students
Screening Data
Linking Assessment to Intervention
Intervention Program Instructional need
Some will need more
Oral Reading Fluency & Accuracy Phonemic Awareness Phonics (Alphabetic Principle) Reading Comp Vocabulary
Logistics
• When do these type of discussions typically take place?
– Initial intervention placement meetings after schoolwide screenings – 3x year – May also discuss every 6-8 weeks when reviewing student progress.
Consultation
Ensuring an Instructional Match
Question 1: What is the skill deficit?
Question 2: How big is that deficit?
Question 3: What interventions address that deficit?
Question 4: How do we implement the program?
Question 1: What is the skill deficit?
The Big 5 of Reading Reading Comprehension Oral Reading Fluency & Accuracy Phonics (Alphabetic Principle) Phonemic Awareness Assessment
DIBELS Next easyCBM* AIMSWEB
•
RTF
•
Daze
•
ORF CWPM
•
MC Reading Comp
•
Maze
•
Reading CBM
Common Screening Data Sources Reading Comprehension •
ORF CWPM
•
ORF Acc %
•
PRF
•
WRF
•
Reading CBM
Oral Reading Fluency & Accuracy •
ORF Acc %
•
NWF WWR
•
NWF CLS
•
PRF Acc %
•
Letter Sounds
•
R-CBM Acc %
•
NWF
•
LSF
Phonics (Alphabetic Principle) •
PSF
•
FSF
•
Phoneme Segmenting DIBELS Next easyCBM*
•
Phoneme Segmentation AIMSWEB
Phonemic Awareness *easyCBM includes a Vocabulary measure
CBM measures are linked to the Big 5 of Reading
Assessment
Phonemic Awareness Vocabulary Phonics (Alphabetic Principle) Oral Reading Fluency & Accuracy Reading Comprehension DIBELS Next Class List Report (2 nd Grade – Fall)
Phonemic Awareness Vocabulary Phonics (Alphabetic Principle) Oral Reading Fluency & Accuracy Reading Comprehension easyCBM Class List Report (2 nd Grade – Fall)
The Big 5 of Reading Reading Comprehension Oral Reading Fluency & Accuracy Phonics (Alphabetic Principle) Phonemic Awareness
How skills build on each other
• Activity: – Oral Reading Fluency Assessment • Find a partner – – Partner 1 (person with next Birthday) – Reader Partner 2 – Test Administrator •
Administer the reading assessment, and have the reader answer the questions
19
Phonics and accuracy are important
Words missed per page when accuracy is…
The Secret Life of Bees
7 th Grade
The Magic School Bus
2 nd – 3 rd grade
95%
18.5
My Brother Sam is Dead
5-6 th grade
15 6
98%
7.4
6 2.4
99%
3.6
3 1.2
Accuracy is more important than fluency
Accurate at Skill Fluent at Skill Able to Apply Skill IF no, teach skill.
If yes, move to fluency If no, teach fluency/ automaticity If yes, move to application If no, teach application If yes, the move to higher level skill/concept
Adapted from
The Big 5 of Reading Reading Comprehension Oral Reading Fluency & Accuracy Phonics (Alphabetic Principle)
Application Fluency Accuracy
Phonemic Awareness
Phonics Example:
Nonsense Word Fluency
Accurate at Skill Fluent at Skill Able to Apply Skill Student knows all letter sounds and makes few, if any, mistakes Student knows all letter sounds AND provides letter sounds fluently Student automatically blends letter sounds into whole words
Accuracy Fluency
7 7 9 8 4 0 0 0 0 0
Application
35/56 letter sounds correct = 63% 35 0
Accuracy Fluency Application
14 14 7 0 0 0 35/36 letter sounds correct = 97% 35 0
Accuracy Fluency
54/54 letter sounds correct = 100%
Application
14 14 15 14 11 5 5 5 5 4 68 24
Validating the deficit
• CBM measures (DIBELS, easyCBM, AIMSWEB, etc) are “indicators” • What does your other data tell you?
– – In-curriculum assessments Other CBM data – OAKS Assessment
Question 2: How big is that deficit?
Is the skill low or
significantly
low?
• You must define what is low and what is significantly low:
Low Significantly low Examples:
DIBELS Next easyCBM* AIMSWEB** Below benchmark Well below Benchmark th percentile th ≤10 th Percentile Between 11 th and 25 ≤10 th Percentile *easyCBM default percentile rank settings **AIMSWEB default percentile rank settings
Question 3: What interventions address that deficit?
Program Evaluation
What intervention programs does your school have that address the skill need(s)?
What intervention programs does your school have that address the skill need(s)?
Triumphs Phonics for Reading Read Naturally STARS SFA Tutoring Reading Mastery Language for Thinking Horizons
Phonemic Awareness
Phonics
Oral Reading Accuracy & Fluency
Vocab
Reading Comp
Triumphs Phonics for Reading Read Naturally STARS SFA Tutoring Reading Mastery Language for Thinking Horizons
Phonemic Awareness
Phonics
Oral Reading Accuracy & Fluency
Vocab
Reading Comp
Triumphs Phonics for Reading Read Naturally STARS SFA Tutoring Reading Mastery Language for Thinking Horizons
Phonemic Awareness
Phonics
Oral Reading Accuracy & Fluency
Vocab
Reading Comp
Additional resources for evaluating interventions
• • • • What Works Clearinghouse – http://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/ Florida Center for Reading Research – http://stage.fcrr.org/fcrrreports/CReportsCS.aspx?rep= supp Oregon Reading First – http://oregonreadingfirst.uoregon.edu/inst_curr_revie w_si.html
Best Evidence Encyclopedia – http://www.bestevidence.org/
Question 4: How do we implement the program?
Consultation
Placement Tests Once an intervention program that addresses the instructional need is identified, placement tests should be used to form instructional groups of students.
Other considerations
• Available resources (time, staff, materials) will guide how many groups are created.
• Consider the behavioral and social/emotional needs of the students
Additional Diagnostic data • Diagnostic assessment in critical area of need: Quick phonics screener Curriculum-Based Evaluation CORE multiple measures DIBELS booklets error patterns Running Records Other?
7 7 9 8 4 0 0 0 0 0 35 0
With your partner
• What other data sources do you currently use or are available to you, to help match interventions to student need?
– Reading – Math – Writing – Behavior
Documentation
Johnny Phonics (in text) X
O O
Oral Reading Fluency Quick Phonics Screener Reading Mastery 2
Evaluating Interventions
What’s the Big Idea(s)!?
• Use appropriate progress monitoring tools • Set Goals • Establish Decision Rules • Analyze data, apply decision rules and determine what to change
Brief & Easy Progress Monitoring Tools Sensitive to growth Frequent Equivalent forms!!!
What are some commonly used progress monitoring tools?
AIMSWEB DIBELS NEXT easyCBM AIMSWEB easyCBM Reading
Reading CBM, Maze FSF, PSF, NWF, ORF, Daze PSF, LSF, WRF, PRF, MC Reading Comp, Vocab
Math
M – Computation, M – Early Numeracy Concepts & Applications, CBM – Numbers & Operations, Measurement, Geometry, Algebra
Written Language
Writing – CBM (Total Words Written, Correct Writing Sequences, Words Spelled Correctly)
What are NOT good progress monitoring tools?
• Phonic Screeners • Report Cards • OAKS
Reading
• DRA • Running Records
Math
Curriculum weekly tests Teacher created math probes* OAKS Writing rubrics*
Written Language
OAKS • Reading curriculum weekly
or
monthly tests
or
fluency passages * when not administered and scored in a standardized and reliable way, or checked for consistency of multiple probes
Do we have the right “indicators”?
• Oral Reading Fluency and Accuracy in reading connected text is one of the best indicators of overall reading comprehension (Fuchs, Fuchs, Hosp, & Jenkins, 2001)
Fluent & accurate reading is not the end goal… but a child who cannot read fluently and accurately cannot fully comprehend written text.
Additional Progress Monitoring Tools For more info and a review of available tools, visit www.rti4success.org (Progress Monitoring Tools Chart)
Goal Setting: Things to Consider 1. What is the goal? – – • Criterion-based Research-based benchmarks/proficiency • • Norm-based Minimum of 25 th average) percentile (bottom limit of School, District, State, National
How do you define success?
Goal Setting: Things to Consider 2. By when will they get there?
– – Long term goals always at proficiency (i.e., grade placement benchmark) Short term towards proficiency (i.e., instructional level material) goals may be an incremental step
Does your goal close the gap?
Goal Setting: Things to Consider 3. What does reasonable growth look like?
– – National Growth rates (Fuchs, AIMSWEB, Hasbrouck & Tindal) Local Growth rates • District, School, Classroom, Intervention Group
What progress can we expect?
National Growth Rates: Reading
Grade Average ORF Growth (WCPM)* Ambitious ORF Growth (WCPM)* Average Maze Growth (WCR)**
5 6 1 2 3 4 2 1.5
1 0.85
0.5
0.3
*Fuchs et al (1993), **Fuchs & Fuchs (2004) 3 2 1.5
1.1
0.8
0.65
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4
“Using national normative samples allows comparisons to be made with the performance levels expected of typical performing students from across the country and equates more closely with data sets that are used in well developed, published, norm referenced tests.” Shapiro, 2008
Local Growth Rates
What does typical growth look like in… …your district?
…your school?
…your classroom?
…your intervention group?
“…use of the combination of local and national norms provides the user of these data with opportunities to evaluate how student performance compares with a national sample of same-grade peers, as well as against the local peers within the particular school.”
Shapiro, 2008
Setting Appropriate Goals Is Important 18 WCPM
Benchmark
36 WCPM
Decision Rules
• • • • Decision rules guide how we decide
if our interventions are working — and when to move on
Your decision rules create consistency across grade levels and schools Determine how to intensify and individualize interventions
Standardizes process for eligibility decision making
Key features of decision rules
• • • • • Set the grade levels for the decision rules (K, 1-6) Number of points below the aimline Give direction if the data is highly variable – Trendline analysis Duration of intervention /frequency of monitoring (Length of time in between meetings (6 to 8 weeks) Define success
Evaluating Interventions:
Is What We Are Doing Working?
AAA
• • •
A
pply Decision Rules: Is the student making adequate progress based on decision rules?
A
nalyze: Is it an individual or a group problem?
A
ction: Determine what to change
A
pply: Is the Student Making Adequate Progress?
60 50 20 10 40 30 D ec .
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J u n e
S c ores 60
A
nalyze: Is it an Individual or a Group Problem?
Cohort Group Analysis: Students who have similar literacy programming: – – – – Grade level Intervention program Time ELD level
Cohort Data 62
20 10 60 50 40 30 Isaiah Mary Amy Dec .
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Cohort Data 63
20 10 60 50 40 30 Dec .
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F eb.
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Amy Isaiah Chase Mary Marc h
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Aimline A pril
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May
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A
ction: Determine What to Change
• • • Listen to the data Gather additional data if necessary Focus on
instructional variables
that you can control!
Focus on what we can control
65
Time Group Size Time/ Engagement Different Program Individual Problem Solving
What do we change?
A Final Thought
It’s better to shoot for the stars and miss than aim at the gutter and hit it.
–
Anonymous
Break Time
68
Individual Problem Solving
OSPA Fall Conference Oregon RTI Project October 12 th , 2012 69
Targets
• Provide a framework for how to individually problem-solve students with the most intensive needs 70
“It is better to know some of the questions than all of the answers.”
James Thurber 71
Problem-Solving Non-example
Problem-Solving Non-example
Who are students with the most intensive needs?
Students with identified disabilities Students who may have a disability Students with significant literacy deficits
74
If there was a problem…
75
Why proactive problem solving?
“Problem solving assessment typically takes a more direct approach to the measurement of need than has been the case in historical special education practice”
-Reschley, Tilly, & Grimes (1999)
“Intervention studies that address the bottom 10 25% of the student population may reduce the number of at-risk students to rates that approximate 2 6%”
-Fletcher, Lyon, Fuchs, & Barnes (2007) 76
The Problem Solving Process
How is it working?
1. Problem Identification 4. Plan Implementation & Evaluation What are we going to problem?
do
about the Improved Student Achievement 3. Plan Development
What
is the problem?
2. Problem Analysis
Why
is the problem occurring?
77
Problem Solving Form
78
Step 1: Problem Identification
1. Problem Identification
What
is the problem?
Improved Student Achievement 79
Step 1: Problem Identification
A problem is defined as a discrepancy between: Expected performance Current performance Problem Definition 80
Step 1: Problem Identification
• Expected performance is based on data: – Performance of typical/average peers – Research-based benchmarks – Proficiency scores • Actual performance student data is based on current 81
Step 1: Problem Identification
• Calculating magnitude of discrepancy Absolute discrepancy: Expected performance
–
Current performance 72 wcpm (Winter 2 nd Grade) Discrepancy Ratio:
–
32 wcpm
= -40 wcpm
Larger Number 72 wcpm (Winter 2 nn Grade)
÷ ÷
Smaller Number 32 wcpm
= 2.25 times discrepant
82
Discrepancy between Current Performance & Expected Performance 83
Step 1: Problem Identification
Problem Definitions should be: 1. Objective – observable and measurable 2. Clear – passes “the stranger test” 3. Complete – includes examples (and non examples when necessary) and baseline data 84
Problem Definition: Example
Harry (2 2 2 nd nd nd grader) is currently reading a median of 44 words correct per minute (wcpm) with 83% accuracy when given grade level text. He also answers an average of 3/10 comp questions correct on weekly in-class tests. grade students in his school are reading an average of 85 wcpm with 97% accuracy on 2 nd grade text and answering 9/10 comp questions correct.
85
Problem Definition: Non-Example Harry struggles with being a fluent reader and is not meeting the 2 nd grade reading benchmark. He makes a lot of mistakes and is currently reading at a 1 st grade level. He also has difficulties answering comprehension questions at grade level and does poorly on his weekly reading tests.
86
Step 1: Problem Identification
• Replacement Skill or Target Behavior – What would it look like if this student were successful?
– What would we prefer the student do, instead of the problem behavior?
87
Problem Definition & Target Skill
88
The Problem Solving Process
1. Problem Identification Improved Student Achievement 2. Problem Analysis
Why
is the problem occurring?
89
Step 2: Problem Analysis
Problem
The
WHY
Plan
should always drive the
WHAT
Analysis
90
The Water…
• • • Focus on “the water” Instruction Curriculum Environment
C I
91
ICEL I
–
C
–
Instruction Curriculum E
–
L
–
Environment Learner
Student Learning
Instruction: Curriculum:
How you teach What you teach
Environment:
Where you teach
Learner:
Who you teach 93
We can control the how, what, and where. We don’t have much control over the who.
94
When it comes to problem analysis, just remember… 95
ICE, ICE baby I
–
C
–
Instruction Curriculum E
–
L
–
Environment
then
Learner
96
What impacts student achievement?
Effective teaching variables
Formative Evaluation Comprehensive interventions for students with LD Teacher Clarity Reciprocal Teaching Feedback
Effect size +0.90
+0.77
+0.75
+0.74
+0.73
Other variables
Socioeconomic Status Parental Involvement Computer based instruction* School Finances Aptitude by Treatment Interactions*
Effect size +0.57
+0.51
+0.37
+0.23
+0.19
Teacher-Student Relationships Direct Instruction
+0.72
+0.59
Family Structure Retention
+0.17
-0.16
John Hattie,
Visible Learning
, 2009
Hypothesis Development
Instruction: Curriculum: ?
?
Learner: Environment: ?
?
98
ICEL Assessment 99
Instruction
,
Curriculum
, &
Environment
• What should appropriate instruction, curriculum, and environment look like?
• Video: Early Reading Intervention – – 3 students receiving direct instruction on phonemic awareness & phonics Observe and note effective teaching practices with regard to instruction, curriculum, and environment 100
Instruction, Curriculum, Environment
101
Talk time
• What effective teaching practices did you see related to instruction, curriculum, & environment?
• What questions/concerns/suggestions might you have for this teacher?
102
Assessment ≠ Testing ≠ Evaluation
*Testing
– “administering a particular set of questions to an individual to obtain a score”
*Assessment
– “the process of collecting data for the purpose of making decisions about students”
**Evaluation
– “procedures used to determine whether the child has a disability, and the nature and extent of the special education and related services that the child needs.” *Salvia & Ysseldyke, 2004 ** Oregon Administrative Rules,
581-015-2000
Assessment 103
Assessment: RIOT
R – Review I – Interview O – Observe T – Test
104
Hypothesis Development
Instruction: Curriculum: Environment: Learner:
105
Instruction
• Thinking about RIOT procedures, what are some ways we can gather information about
Instruction
?
R – Review I – Interview O – Observe T – Test Examine lesson plans, attendance, permanent products for instructional demands Talk to teachers about expectations, instructional strategies used Observe instruction in the classroom for effective instructional practices Aggregate test scores of classroom 106
Who knows…?
Instruction: Examples
Targets for Intervention I do, we do, y’all do, you do 1-2 OTR’s/min <50% errors corrected 8-12 OTR’s/min 95-100% errors corrected
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Is this effective instruction?
Is this effective instruction?
When it comes to interventions…
“It is clear that the program is less important than how it is delivered, with the most impressive gains associated with more intensity and an explicit, systematic delivery” Fletcher & Colleagues, 2007
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Instruction Resources
Explicit Instruction
–
– Archer & Hughes (2011) www.explicitinstruction.org
Teaching Reading Sourcebook - CORE –
http://www.corelearn.com/
Classroom Instruction that Works: Research Based Strategies for Increasing Student Achievement
–
Marzano et al, (2001) 111
Curriculum
• Thinking about RIOT procedures, what are some ways we can gather information about
Curriculum
?
R – Review I – Interview O – Observe T – Test Examine permanent products for skills taught, scope & sequence, instructional match Talk to teachers, administrators about philosophy of curriculum, coverage, etc.
Student success rate Readability of textbooks 112
Curriculum: Examples
Not matched to need Targets for Intervention Matched to need Frustrational (<80%) Weak (<80%) Instructional (>80-90%) Strong (>80%)
113
Reading Skills Build on Each Other Reading Comprehension Oral Reading Accuracy & Fluency Phonics (Alphabetic Principle) Phonemic Awareness 114
Environment
• Thinking about RIOT procedures, what are some ways we can gather information about
Environment
?
R – Review I – Interview O – Observe T – Test Examine school rules, attendance, class size Talk to teachers about expectations, rules, behavior management system, classroom culture, talk to parents Observe in the classroom Aggregate test scores of classroom 115
Not defined
Environment: Examples
Targets for Intervention Explicitly taught & reinforced Low rate of reinforcement Mostly positive (4:1) Chaotic & distracting Organized & distraction-free
116
Academic Learning Time: Typical School
Hours
1170 School Year (6.5 hours x 180 days)
- 65 Absenteeism (1 day/month x 10 months)
= 1105 Attendance Time (Time in School)
- 270 Non-instructional time (1.5 hrs./day for recess, lunch, etc)
= 835
-
Allocated Time (Time scheduled for teaching)
- 209 (25% of allocated time for administration, transition, discipline-15 minutes/hour)
= 626 Instructional time (time actually teaching)
- 157 Time off task (Engaged 75% of time)
= 469 Engaged Time (On task)
94 Unsuccessful Engaged Time (Success Rate 80%)
= 375 Academic Learning Time
Education Resources Inc., 2005
Academic Learning Time: Effective School
Hours
1170 School Year (6.5 hours x 180 days)
- 65 Absenteeism (1 day/month x 10 months)
= 1105 Attendance Time (Time in School)
- 270 Non-instructional time (1.5 hrs./day for recess, lunch, etc)
= 835
-
Allocated Time (Time scheduled for teaching)
- 125 (15% of allocated time for administration, transition, discipline-9 minutes/hour)
= 710 Instructional time (actually teaching-710 vs. 626)
71 Time off task (Engaged 90% of time)
= 639 Engaged Time (639 vs. 469 On task)
64 Unsuccessful Engaged Time (Success Rate 90%)
= 575 Academic Learning Time
Education Resources Inc., 2005
The Difference: Typical vs. Effective Schools
Variable Allocated Non instructional Time Engagement Rate Success Rate Academic Learning time Typical School
25% (15 min/hr)
Effective School
15% ( 9 min/hr)
Time gained
+84 more hours
How the time is gained
Teaching expectations, teaching transitions, managing appropriate and inappropriate behavior efficiently 75% 80% 375 hours 90% 90% 575 hours +86 more hours +30 more hours Better management of groups, pacing Appropriate placement, effective teaching =
200 more hours (53% more) OR 95 more school days (4-5 months!)
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Learner
• Thinking about RIOT procedures, what are some ways we can gather information about
Learner
?
R – Review I – Interview O – Observe T – Test Examine cumulative file, health records, developmental history, etc Talk to teachers, parents, student about perceptions of the problem Observe student in the classroom Direct assessment 120
Learner: Examples
Poor attendance Well below benchmarks Off-task, disruptive, disengaged Great attendance At benchmarks Focused & attentive
121
Before considering additional testing • • Start with existing data: – Screening data – – – Progress monitoring data State testing data (OAKS) In curriculum data Is additional data needed?
– What additional questions do you have?
– Which diagnostic assessments can answer those questions?
Assessment 122
Additional Resources
• • • •
Curriculum-Based Evaluation: Teaching & Decision Making
– Howell & Nolet CORE Assessing Reading Multiple Measures Quick Phonics Screener DIBELS Deep 123
Hypothesis Development
Instruction: Curriculum: Environment: Learner:
124
Hypothesis Development
• What can
we
do that will reduce the problem (decrease the gap between what is expected and what is occurring)?
Expected performance Current performance 125
Problem Hypothesis
• • Why is the problem occurring?
Example: – Harry’s reading fluency and comprehension problems occur because he lacks strategies for decoding silent-e words engagement and does not provide enough vowel digraphs (oa, ea, ae, ou, etc). His current instruction explicit modeling of these skills. He also currently has a low level of and is highly distracted in both his classroom and intervention room.
126
Prediction Statement
• • What will make the problem better?
Example: – Harry will improve if he receives explicit instruction in his identified missing skills. He also needs instruction that utilizes and effective active engagement strategies keep him highly engaged in instruction, and an environment that is distraction high pacing quiet, without from other students.
to 127
Problem Hypothesis & Prediction
128
What are we going to problem?
do
about the
Step 3: Plan Development
1. Problem Identification Improved Student Achievement 2. Problem Analysis 3. Plan Development Consultation 129
Intervention Plan
130
Progress Monitoring Plan
131
Fidelity Monitoring Plan
132
Fidelity checklist
133
Importance of Feedback
• • • • Wickstrom et al studied 33 intervention cases. Teachers agreed to do an intervention and were then observed in class.
0/33 Teachers had fidelity above 10%.
33/33 on a self report measure indicated that they had used the intervention as specified by the team.
Consultation Slide taken from a presentation by Joseph Witt
Importance of Feedback
“Among the most powerful of interventions is feedback or formative evaluation – providing information to the teacher as to where he or she is going, how he or she is going there, and where he or she needs to go next” Hattie, 2012 (Visible Learning for Teachers) “Feedback is the breakfast of champions”
Kevin Feldman
Consultation 135
Step 4: Plan Implementation & Evaluation
How is it working?
1. Problem Identification 4. Plan Implementation & Evaluation Improved Student Achievement 2. Problem Analysis 3. Plan Development 136
Attendance
137
Fidelity Data
138
Progress Monitoring Data…
139
…as compared to peers/expected growth 140
Cohort Data
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Cohort Data
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Magnitude of Discrepancy
143
Next Steps: Based on Data & District Policies & Procedures 144
Final Thought: Data, Data, Data
145
Questions/Comments
Jon Potter [email protected]
Lisa Bates [email protected]
David Putnam [email protected]
146