Transcript Document

Chapter 4:
Theories of
Motivation
Organizational
Behaviour
5th Canadian Edition
Langton / Robbins / Judge
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education
Canada
4-1
Chapter Outline
•
•
•
•
•
What Is Motivation?
Needs Theories of Motivation
Process Theories of Motivation
Responses to the Reward System
Motivating Employees Through
Reinforcement
• Motivation for Whom?
Langton, Robbins and Judge, Organizational Behaviour, Fifth Cdn. Ed.
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Theories of Motivation
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
What is motivation?
How do needs motivate people?
Are there other ways to motivate people?
Do equity and fairness matter?
What role does reinforcement play in
motivation?
6. What are the ethics behind motivation
theories?
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What Is Motivation?
• Motivation
– The intensity, direction, and persistence of
effort a person shows in reaching a goal:
• Intensity: How hard a person tries
• Direction: Where effort is channelled
• Persistence: How long effort is maintained
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Theory X and Theory Y
• Theory X Assumptions
• Theory Y Assumptions
– Employees dislike work
– Employees like to work
– Employees attempt to avoid
work
– Employees are creative, and
seek responsibility
– Employees must be
coerced, controlled, or
threatened with punishment
if they are to perform.
– Employees can exercise
self-direction and selfcontrol.
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Motivators
• Intrinsic Motivators
– A person’s internal desire to do something
• interest, challenge, and personal satisfaction
• Extrinsic Motivators
– Motivation that comes from outside the person
• pay, bonuses, and other tangible rewards
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Needs Theories of Motivation
• Basic idea
– Individuals have needs that, when unsatisfied, will
result in motivation
• Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory.
• Motivation-Hygiene Theory
• ERG Theory
• McClelland’s Theory of Needs
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Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
• Physiological
– Includes hunger, thirst, shelter, sex, and other bodily needs
• Safety
– Includes security and protection from physical & emotional harm
• Social
– Includes affection, belongingness, acceptance, and friendship
• Esteem
– Includes internal esteem factors: self-respect, autonomy, and
achievement
– Includes external esteem factors: status, recognition, and attention
• Self-actualization
– The drive to become what one is capable of becoming
– Includes growth, achieving one’s potential, and self-fulfillment
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Exhibit 4-1 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Selfactualization
Esteem
Social
Safety
Physiological
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Alderfer’s ERG Theory
• Existence
– Concerned with providing basic material existence
requirements.
• Relatedness
– Desire for maintaining important interpersonal
relationships.
• Growth
– Intrinsic desire for personal development.
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Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene
Theory
• Motivators
• Hygiene factors
– Sources of satisfaction
– Intrinsic factors
(content of work)
– Sources of dissatisfaction
– Extrinsic factors (context
of work)
• Achievement
• Recognition
• Challenging, varied, or
interesting work
• Responsibility
• Advancement
• Company policy and
administration
• Unhappy relationship with
employee’s supervisor
• Poor interpersonal
relations with one’s peers
• Poor working conditions
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Exhibit 4-2 Comparison of Satisfiers
and Dissatisfiers
Source: Reprinted by permission of Harvard Business Review. An exhibit from Frederick Herzberg, “One More Time:
How Do You Motivate Employees?” Harvard Business Review 81, no. 1 (January 2003), p. 90. Copyright © 1987 by the
President and Fellows of Harvard College; all rights reserved.
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Exhibit 4-3 Contrasting Views of
Satisfaction and Dissatisfaction
Traditional view
Dissatisfaction
Satisfaction
Herzberg's view
Hygiene Factors
Dissatisfaction
No Dissatisfaction
Motivators
No Satisfaction
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Satisfaction
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Criticisms of Motivation-Hygiene Theory
• Procedure Herzberg used is limited by its methodology.
• Reliability of Herzberg’s methodology is questioned.
• Herzberg did not really produce a theory of motivation.
• No overall measure of satisfaction was used.
• The theory is inconsistent with previous research.
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McClelland’s Theory of Needs
• Need for achievement
– The drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of
standards, to strive to succeed
• Need for power
– The need to make others behave in a way that they would
not have behaved otherwise
• Need for affiliation
– The desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships
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Exhibit 4-4 Relationship of Various
Needs Theories
Maslow
Alderfer
Herzberg
Growth
Motivators
McClelland
Self-Actualization
Need for Achievement
Esteem
Need for Power
Affiliation
Relatedness
Hygiene
Need for Affiliation
Factors
Security
Existence
Physiological
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Summary: Hierarchy of Needs
• Maslow: Argues that lower-order needs must be satisfied before
one progresses to higher-order needs.
• Herzberg: Motivators lead to satisfaction. Hygiene factors must be
met if person is not to be dissatisfied. However, they will not lead
to satisfaction.
• Alderfer: More than one need can be important at the same time.
If a higher-order need is not being met, the desire to satisfy a
lower-level need increases.
• McClelland: People vary in the types of needs they have. Their
motivation and how well they perform in a work situation are
related to whether they have a need for achievement, affiliation, or
power.
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Summary: Impact of Theory
• Maslow: Enjoys wide recognition among practising managers.
Most managers are familiar with it.
• Herzberg: The popularity of giving workers greater responsibility
for planning and controlling their work can be attributed to his
findings. Shows that more than one need may operate at the same
time.
• Alderfer: Seen as a more valid version of the need hierarchy. Tells
us that achievers will be motivated by jobs that offer personal
responsibility, feedback, and moderate risks.
• McClelland: Tells us that high need achievers do not necessarily
make good managers, since high achievers are more interested in
how they do personally.
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Summary: Support and Criticism of
Theory
• Maslow: Research does not generally validate the theory. In
particular, there is little support for the hierarchical nature of needs.
Criticized for how data were collected and interpreted.
• Herzberg: Not really a theory of motivation: Assumes a link
between satisfaction and productivity that was not measured or
demonstrated.
• Alderfer: Ignores situational variables.
• McClelland: Mixed empirical support, but theory is consistent
with our knowledge of individual differences among people. Good
empirical support, particularly on needs achievement.
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Process Theories of Motivation
• Look at the actual process of motivation
– Expectancy theory
– Goal-setting theory
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Expectancy Theory
• The theory that individuals act depending on:
– whether their effort will lead to good performance
– whether good performance will be followed by a given
outcome
– whether that outcome is attractive to them
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Expectancy Relationships
• The theory focuses on three relationships:
– Effort-Performance Relationship
• The perceived probability that exerting a given amount of
effort will lead to performance
– Performance-Reward Relationship
• The degree to which the individual believes that performing at
a particular level will lead to a desired outcome
– Rewards-Personal Goals Relationship
• The degree to which organizational rewards satisfy an
individual’s personal goals or needs and and are attractive to
the individual
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Exhibit 4-6 How Does Expectancy
Theory Work?
My professor offers me $1 million if I memorize the textbook by tomorrow morning.
Expectancy
Effort
Performance Link
No matter how much effort
I put in, probably not possible
Instrumentality
Performance
Rewards Link
Valence
Rewards
Personal Goals Link
My professor does not look
There are a lot of wonderful things
like someone who has $1 million
I could do with $1 million
to memorize the text in 24 hours
E=0
I=0
V=1
Conclusion: Though I value the reward, I will not be motivated to do this task.
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Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada
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Exhibit 4-7 Steps to Increasing
Motivation, Using Expectancy Theory
Improving
Expectancy
Improve the ability of the
individual to perform
• Make sure employees have skills
for the task
• Provide training
• Assign reasonable tasks
and goals
Improving
Instrumentality
Improving
Valence
Increase the individual
’s belief that
Make sure that the reward is
performance will lead to reward
meaningful to the individual
• Observe and recognize
performance
• Ask employees what rewards
they value
• Deliver rewards as promised
• Indicate to employees how previous
• Give rewards that are valued
good performance led to greater
rewards
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Goal-Setting Theory
• The theory that specific and difficult goals
lead to higher performance.
– Goals tell an employee what needs to be done and how
much effort will need to be expended.
• Specific goals increase performance.
• Difficult goals, when accepted, result in higher performance
than do easy goals.
• Feedback leads to higher performance than does non-feedback.
– Specific hard goals produce a higher level of output
than does the generalized goal of “do your best.”
• The specificity of the goal itself acts as an internal stimulus.
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Management by Objectives
• A program that encompasses:
– Specific goals
– Participative decision-making
– Explicit time period
– Performance feedback
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How Does Goal Setting Motivate?
• Goals:
– Direct attention
– Regulate effort
– Increase persistence
– Encourage the development of strategies and action
plans
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Goals Should Be SMART
• For goals to be effective, they should be SMART:
–
–
–
–
–
Specific
Measurable
Attainable
Results Oriented
Time bound
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Exhibit 4-8 Locke’s Model of
Goal Setting
Directing attention
Goals
Regulating effort
Task
performance
motivate
by .
..
Increasing persistence
Encouraging the development
of strategies and action plans
Source: Adapted from E. A. Locke and G. P. Latham, A Theory of Goal Setting and Task
Performance (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1980). Reprinted by permission of Edwin A.
Locke.
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Self-Efficacy Theory
• Self Efficacy also known as social cognitive
theory and social learning theory
• An individual’s belief that he or she is capable of
performing a task.
– The higher your self efficacy the more confident you
are in your ability to succeed in a task
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Four Ways to Improve Self Efficacy
• Enactive Mastery
– Gaining relevant experience
• Vicarious Modelling
– Confidence gained by seeing someone else perform the task.
• Verbal Persuasion
– Confidence gained because someone convinces you that you have
the necessary skills to succeed.
• Arousal
– An energized state can drive a person to complete the task.
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Exhibit 4-9 Joint Efforts of Goals and
Self Efficacy on Performance
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Responses to the
Reward System
• Equity Theory
• Fair Process and Treatment
• Cognitive Evaluation Theory
• Increasing Intrinsic Motivation
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Exhibit 4-10
Equity Theory
Ratio of Output to Input
Person 1s Perception
Person 1
Person 2
Inequity, under-rewarded
Person 1
Equity
Person 2
Person 1
Inequity, over-rewarded
Person 2
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Equity Theory
• Equity theory recognizes that individuals are
concerned not only with the absolute amount of
rewards for their efforts, but also with the
relationship of this amount to what others receive.
• Individuals compare their job inputs and outcomes
with those of others and then respond so as to
eliminate any inequities.
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Equity Comparisons
• Self-inside
• Self-outside
• Other-inside
• Other-outside
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Responses to Inequity
• Change their
inputs.
• Adjust perceptions
of others.
• Change their
outcomes.
• Choose a different
referent.
• Adjust perceptions
of self.
• Leave the field.
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Equity Theory Propositions
• When paid by time worked,
over-rewarded employees will
produce more than will
equitably paid employees.
• When paid by time worked,
under-rewarded employees will
produce less or poorer-quality
output.
• When paid by number of units
produced, over-rewarded
employees will produce fewer,
but higher-quality, units than
will equitably paid employees.
• When paid by number of units
produced, under-rewarded
employees will produce a large
number of low-quality units in
comparison with equitably paid
employees.
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Fair Process and Treatment
• Historically, equity theory focused on:
– Distributive Justice: perceived fairness of the amount
and allocation of resources among individuals.
• Equity is thought of from various standpoints
– Organizational Justice: an overall perception of what
is fair in the workplace.
– Procedural Justice: perceived fairness of the process
used to determine the distribution of rewards.
– Interactional Justice: the quality of interpersonal
treatment from the manager.
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Exhibit 4-11 Model of Organizational
Justice
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Cognitive Evaluation Theory
• The introduction of extrinsic rewards for work
effort that was previously rewarded intrinsically
will tend to decrease the overall level of a person’s
motivation.
• Intrinsic Motivators
– A person’s internal desire to do something, due to such things as
interest, challenge, and personal satisfaction.
• Extrinsic Motivators
– Motivation that comes from outside the person, such as pay,
bonuses, and other tangible rewards.
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Research Findings: Cognitive
Evaluation Theory
• A recent outgrowth of Cognitive Evaluation Theory is
self concordance, which considers the degree to
which people’s reasons for pursuing goals is
consistent with their interests and core values.
• OB research suggest that people who pursue work
goals for intrinsic reasons are more satisfied with
their jobs, feel like they fit into their organization
better, and may perform better.
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Four Key Rewards to Increase
Intrinsic Motivation
1.Sense of choice
2.Sense of competence
3.Sense of meaningfulness
4.Sense of progress
Managers can act in ways that will build these
intrinsic rewards for their employees.
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Motivating Employees Through
Reinforcement
• Skinner suggested that people learn how to behave
to get something they want or to avoid something
they don’t want.
• This idea is known as operant conditioning.
– Behaviour is influenced by the reinforcement or lack of
reinforcement brought about by the consequences of the
behaviour.
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Methods of Shaping Behaviour
• Positive reinforcement
– Following a response with something pleasant.
• Negative reinforcement
– Following a response by the termination or withdrawal of
something unpleasant.
• Punishment
– Causing an unpleasant condition in an attempt to eliminate an
undesirable behaviour.
• Extinction
– Eliminating any reinforcement that is maintaining a behaviour.
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Schedules of Reinforcement
• The two major types of reinforcement schedules are
continuous and intermittent.
– Continuous reinforcement: reinforces desired
behaviour each and every time it is demonstrated.
– Intermittent reinforcement: ratio or interval
• The individual is reinforced after giving a certain number of
specific types of behaviour.
• The individual is reinforced on the first appropriate behaviour
after a particular time has elapsed.
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Fixed and Variable Reinforcements
•
A reinforcement can also be classified as fixed or
variable.
–
Fixed-interval schedule
–
Variable-interval schedule
–
Fixed-ratio schedule
–
Variable-ratio schedule
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Exhibit 4-12 Building Blocks for
Intrinsic Rewards
Leading for Competence
Leading for Choice
• Delegated authority
• Knowledge
• Trust in workers
• Positive feedback
• Security (no punishment) for honest mistakes
• Skill recognition
• A clear purpose
• Challenge
• Information
• High, non-comparative standards
Leading for Progress
Leading for Meaningfulness
• A non-cynical climate
• A collaborative climate
• Clearly identified passions
• Milestones
• An exciting vision
• Celebrations
• Relevant task purposes
• Access to customers
• Whole tasks
• Measurement of improvement
Source: Reprinted with permission of the publisher. From Intrinsic Motivation at Work: Building Energy and
Commitment. Copyright © K. Thomas. Berrett-Koehler Publishers Inc., San Francisco, CA. All rights reserved.
www.bkconnection.com.
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Exhibit 4-13
Types of Reinforcement
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Exhibit 4-14 Schedules of
Reinforcement
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Putting It All Together
• What we know about motivating employees in
organizations:
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Recognize individual differences.
Employees have different needs.
Don’t treat them all alike.
Spend the time necessary to understand what’s
important to each employee.
Use goals and feedback.
Allow employees to participate in decisions that affect
them.
Link rewards to performance.
Check the system for equity.
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Summary and Implications
1.
What is Motivation?
–
2.
How do needs motivate people?
–
3.
Motivation is the process that accounts for an individual’s
intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward reaching
the goal.
All needs theories of motivation propose a similar idea:
individuals have needs that, when unsatisfied, will result in
motivation.
Are there other ways to motivate people?
–
Process theories focus on the broader picture of how
someone can set about motivating another individual. Process
theories include expectancy theory and goal setting theory
(and its application, management by objectives).
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Summary and Implications
4.
Do equity and fairness matter?
–
5.
What role does reinforcement play in motivation?
–
6.
Individuals look for fairness in the reward system. Rewards
should be perceived by employees as related to the inputs
they bring to the job.
B. F. Skinner suggested that behaviour is influenced by
whether or not it is reinforced. Managers might consider,
then, how their actions towards employees reinforce (or do
not reinforce) employee behaviour.
What are the ethics behind motivation theories?
–
There is a debate among theorists about whether motivation
theories are used for the employees’ benefit or to just
improve productivity.
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OB at Work
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For Review
1. Define motivation. What are the key elements of
motivation?
2. What are the implications of Theories X and Y for
motivation practices?
3. Does motivation come from within a person, or is it a
result of the situation? Explain.
4. Compare and contrast Maslow’s hierarchy theory of
needs with Herzberg’s motivation-hygiene (two-factor)
theory.
5. Explain the difference between hygiene factors and
motivators in Herzberg’s motivation-hygiene (two-factor)
theory.
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For Review
6.
7.
8.
Identify the variables in expectancy theory.
What is the role of self-efficacy in goal setting?
Contrast distributive and procedural justice. What
implications might they have for designing pay systems
in different countries?
9. Explain cognitive evaluation theory. How applicable is it
to management practice?
10. Describe the four types of intermittent reinforcers.
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For Critical Thinking
1.
Identify three activities you really enjoy (for example, playing
tennis, reading a novel, going shopping). Next, identify three
activities you really dislike (for example, visiting the dentist,
cleaning the house, following a low-fat diet). Using the
expectancy model, analyze each of your answers to assess why
some activities stimulate your effort while others don’t.
2.
Expectancy theory argues that for people to be motivated, they
have to value the rewards that they will receive for their effort.
This suggests the need for recognizing individual differences.
Does this view contradict the principles of equity theory?
Discuss.
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For Critical Thinking
3.
To what extent will you be motivated to study under the
following circumstances:
a.
b.
c.
4.
5.
The instructor gives only one test—a final examination at the
end of the course.
The instructor gives four exams during the term, all of which are
announced on the first day of class.
The student’s grade is based on the results of numerous exams,
none of which are announced by the instructor ahead of time.
“The cognitive evaluation theory is contradictory to
reinforcement and expectancy theories.” Do you agree or
disagree? Explain.
Analyze the application of Maslow’s and Herzberg’s
theories to an African or Caribbean nation where more
than a quarter of the population is unemployed.
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Breakout Group Exercises
• Form small groups to discuss the following topics:
1. One of the members of your team continually arrives late for meetings
and does not turn drafts of assignments in on time. Choose one of the
available theories and indicate how the theory explains the member’s
current behaviour and how the theory could be used to motivate the
group member to perform more responsibly.
2. You are unhappy with the performance of one of your instructors and
would like to encourage the instructor to present more lively classes.
Choose one of the available theories and indicate how the theory
explains the instructor’s current behaviour. How could you as a
student use the theory to motivate the instructor to present more lively
classes?
3. Harvard University recently changed its grading policy to recommend
to instructors that the average course mark should be a B. This was the
result of a study showing that more than 50 percent of students were
receiving an A or A- for coursework. Harvard students are often
referred to as “the best and the brightest,” and they pay $27 000 (US)
for their education, so they expect high grades. Discuss the impact of
this change in policy on the motivation of Harvard students to study
harder.
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Supplemental Material
Slides for activities I do in my own
classroom
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Exercise on Motivation Theories
• Jesse has been underperforming at work, coming in late,
and causing some problems with the other workers.
Previously Jesse has been one of your star employees.
Using the theory assigned to your group, explain what
steps you might take to motivate Jesse to perform better.
– Describe the plan.
– Indicate how the plan relates to the theory.
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Theories to Apply
• Herzberg Motivation-Hygiene (Two-Factor)
Theory
• Expectancy
• Goal-Setting Theory
• Equity
• Cognitive Evaluation Theory
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