Transcript Literary Theory

Literary Theory
Class Three
•Gérard Genette
傑哈．簡奈特
Gérard Genette
• Narrative Discourse. 1972. Trans. Jane E.
Lewin. Itaca, NY: Cornell UP, 1980.
• Narrative Discourse Revisited. 1983. Trans.
Jane E. Lewin. Itaca, NY: Cornell UP, 1988.
• 【辭格 III】, 廖素珊、楊恩祖譯, 時報出版,
2003
Genette (1) – Mode 語式
Mimetic 模擬
Diegetic 叙記
Showing
Staging a scene
Slow motion
“What is done and said
is ‘staged’ for the reader,
creating the illusion that
we are ‘seeing’ and
‘hearing’ things for
ourselves.”
Telling
Summarizing
Fastforward
“ A rapid summary of a
long sequence of events,
but all taking place ‘offstage’, as it were.”
(Barry 231-32)
Genette (1) – Mode 語式
Mimetic模擬
Diegetic叙記
當他從美國回來，跑到我南京的家來，衝著我倏
地敬個軍禮，叫我一聲師娘時，我著實吃他唬了
一跳。郭軫全身都是美式凡立丁的空軍制服，上
身罩了一件翻領鑲毛的皮夾克，腰身勒得緊峭，
褲袋上卻繫著一個Ray-Ban太陽眼鏡盒兒。一頂
嶄新高聳的軍帽帽沿正壓在眉毛上； 頭髮也蓄長
了，滲黑油亮的髮腳子緊貼在兩鬢旁。才是一兩
年功夫，沒料到郭軫竟出挑得英氣勃勃了。
「怎麼了， 小夥子？這次回來， 該有些苗頭
了吧？」我笑著向他說道。
「別的沒什麼， 師娘， 倒是在外國攢了幾百
塊美金回來。」郭軫說道。
「夠討老婆了！」我笑了起來。
「是呀，師娘，正在找呢。 」郭軫也朝著我
齜了牙齒笑道。
我們撤退到海南島的時候，偉成便病歿了。
可笑他在天上飛了一輩子，沒有出事，坐
在船上，卻硬生生的病故了。他染了痢疾，
船上害病的人多，不夠藥，我看著他屙痢
屙得臉發了黑。他一斷氣，船上水手便把
他用麻包袋套起來，和其他幾個病死的人
一起丟到了海裏去，我只聽得「 嘭」一下，
人便沒了. . . .來到台灣，天天忙著過活，
大陸上的事情，竟逐漸淡忘了。老實說，
要不是在新生社又碰見朱青，我是不會想
起她來了的。
(白先勇 【一把青】 臺北人 93)
(白先勇 【一把青】 臺北人 76-77)
Genette (2) – Focalization 聚焦
(viewpoint or perspective)
External
focalization
外聚焦
Internal
focalization
內聚焦
Zero
focalization
零聚焦
The viewpoint is outside the character depicted.
(observable to a witness of the event)
What the character think and feel. (inaccessible to
a witness)
Omniscient narration; “The narrated
is presented in . . . a nonlocatable,
indeterminable perceptual or
conceptual position” (Prince 103)
Genette (2) – Focalization 聚焦
(viewpoint or perspective)
External focalization
外聚焦
小畢國三時偷錢…那晚畢伯伯盤問小畢的大喉嚨，我們在
隔壁聽的清清楚楚。小畢從頭到尾沒吭一句，畢伯伯氣極，
拿皮管子下了狠手打他，小畢給打急了連連叫道：「你打我！
你不是我爸爸你打我！」 劈拍兩聲耳光，是畢媽媽摔的，屋
子裏沉寂了下來。
畢伯伯吱呀一聲跌坐在藤椅裏。我打賭我們這半邊眷村都
在聆聽他們家的動靜，後山的松風低低吹過，院中忘了收的
舊雜誌給吹的拆拆作響。 (朱天文 【小畢的故事】 花憶前
身 110)
Internal focalization
內聚焦
*「李龍第想著晴子黑色的眼睛，便由內心裡的一種感激勾起
一陣絞心的哀愁。」 (七等生 【我愛黑眼珠】 173)
*「李龍第的眼睛投注在對面那個赤足襤褸的蒼白工人身上；
這個工人有著一張長滿黑鬱鬱的鬍髭和一雙呈露空漠的眼睛
的英俊面孔，中央那隻瘦直的鼻子的兩個孔洞正像瀉出疲倦
苦慮的氣流，他的手臂看起來堅硬而削瘦，像用刀削過的不
均的木棒。」(七等生 【我愛黑眼珠】 175)
Zero focalization
零聚焦
*「黑漆中，屋頂上的人們紛紛在蠢動，遠近到處喧嚷著聲音；
原來水退走了。這場災禍來的快也去的快。天明的時候，只
留下李龍第還在屋頂上緊緊地抱著那個女人。 」(七等生
【我愛黑眼珠】 185)
Genette (3) – Voice 語態
authorial persona
(covert)
(effaced)
*A mere “telling medium” which strives
for neutrality and transparency.
*Ex. 【我愛黑眼珠】、Ceremony
character-narrator
(overt)
(intrusive)
(dramatized)
HeteroDiegetic
異記事
*The narrator is a character
outside the story s/he narrates.
*Ex. Wuthering Heights, The Great
Gatsby
HomoDiegetic
同記事
*The narrator is a character in
the story s/he tells.
*Ex. “The Oval Portrait”, “The
Aspern Papers”, Heart of Darkness
Genette (4) – Order 次序
Analepsis 倒敘
Back-take
Flashback
他從窗縫中，看到他兒子房中的燈光仍然亮著，俊
彥坐在窗前，低著頭在看書，他那年輕英爽的側影，
映在窗框裡。余教授微微吃了一驚，他好像驟然看
到了自己年輕時的影子一般，他已經逐漸忘懷了他
年輕時的模樣了。他記得就是在俊彥那個年紀，二
十歲，他那時候認識雅馨的。那次他們在北海公園，
雅馨剛剪掉辮子， 一頭秀髮讓風吹得飛了起來， 她
穿著一條深藍的學生裙子站在北海邊， 裙子飄飄的，
西天的晚霞， 把一湖的水照得火燒一般， 把她的臉
也染紅了。 (白先勇 【冬夜】 臺北人 315)
Prolepsis 預緒
Fore-take
Anticipation
懷孕七個月的事揭曉出去以後，這一房一廳便頓時
熱鬧起來，不但在緊接而來的五天內，得到了社會
全體的關懷。還在一個月後，承受了領導豐富的恩
情，同時也使過客的我，在不意之間，目擊了社會
主義制度下的說服工作。
(李渝 【豪傑們】 應答的鄉岸 107)
Genette (5) – Story Levels 層次
Frame narratives
Single-ended
The frame is not returned to
at the end of the embedded.
(e.g. The Turn of the Screw)
Double-ended
The frame is re-introduced
at the end of the embedded.
(e.g. Heart of Darkness)
Intrusive
The embedded is
occasionally interrupted to
revert to the frame. (e.g.
Heart of Darkness)
(an alienation
device)
Embedded
narratives
Or the meta-narrative, a narrative within the
narrative. It’s the main story. (e.g. individual tales
of The Canterbury Tales.)
Genette (6) – Speech
Direct Speech
Indirect
Speech
Tagged
她一面吃一面問他：「你叫什麼名字？」
「亞茲別。」李龍第脫口說出。 (182)
Untagged
「他真的不是你的妻子﹖」
「絕不是。」
「那麼你的妻子呢？」
「我沒有。」 (181)
Selectively
tagged
李龍第低下頭問她：「我要是拋下妳，妳
會怎麼樣？」「我會躺在屋頂上慢慢死去，
我在這大都市也原是一個人的，而且正在
生病。」(183)
Tagged indirect
speech
李龍第抬頭注意對面的晴子在央求救生舟
把她載到這邊來，可是有些人說她發瘋
了… (183)
Free indirect
speech
他完全被那群無主四處奔逃擁擠的人們的
神色和喚叫感染到共同面臨災禍的恐懼。
假如這個時候他還能看見他的妻子晴子，
這是上天對他何等的恩惠啊。 (177)
(七等生 【我愛黑眼珠】 )
Free Indirect Discourse
• FID = narrated monologue;
pensée avec
• FID is often taken to contain mixed
within it markers of two voices (a
narrator’s and a character’s).
Free Indirect Discourse
• Definition: “the technique for
rendering a character’s thought in
his own idiom while maintaining
the third-person reference and the
basic tense of narration” (Cohn
100).
Free Indirect Discourse
• FID is often marked by such contextual
features: (1) general markers of
colloquialism (such as ejaculations, lexical
fillers); (2) more specific markers of a group
or class to which a character belongs; (3) a
character’s personal idiom; (4) markers of
social-role relationships (Prince 35-36).
Example #1
(1) Direct discourse:
Tom said, “Gosh, I am tired.”
(2) Indirect discourse:
Tom said that he was tired.
(3) Free indirect discourse:
Gosh, he was tired.
(Fludernik 74)
Example #2
• She [Lily] started up and looked forth on the
passing streets. Gerty!—they were nearing Gerty’s
corner. If only she could reach there before this
laboring anguish burst from her breast to her
lips—if only she could feel the hold of Gerty’s
arms while she shook in the ague-fit of fear that
was coming upon her!
(The House of Mirth I, xiii; Wharton 1962: 173)
(quoted in Fludernik 78)
Example #3
The trader was not shocked nor amazed . . . .
He had seen Death many times . . . and so
he only swore that the gal was a baggage,
and that he was devilish unlucky, and that, if
things went on in this way, he should not
make a cent on the trip.
(Uncle Tom’s Cabin, xii; Stowe 1981: 130)
(quoted in Fludernik 116)
Recommended References
on Free Indirect Discourse
• http://osf1.gmu.edu/~dkaufman/narrative.
htm
• http://www.ualberta.ca/~dmiall/ShortStor
y/Mansfield-Woolf.htm
• http://www.literaryencyclopedia.com/php/
stopics.php?rec=true&UID=444
•Jacques Derrida
• 太初有道 (Word/Logos), 道與神同在, 道就
是神. . . . 道成了肉身, 住在我們中間. (約一.
ㄧ與一四)
• 約翰或熊恩(Shaun)或崔斯坦 (Tristan) 會這
樣說: 太初有明信片, 開頭寫了目的地卻沒
寫地址, 下場是無從投遞. 任何符號、記號、
或特點裏, . . . . 早已都沒有目的地. 有的是
距離的製造, 是郵件. (德希達 《明信片》)
Payne, Michael. 《閱讀理論》. 李奭學譯. 書林. 2005. 頁171-72.
• “Structure, Sign and Play in
the Discourse of the Human
Sciences” (1966)
•Structure
Centered Structure
• All notions of structure have
a centre. It is a sign – “the
transcendental signifier” -that will give meaning to all
others.
Logocentrism 理體中心理論
• This desire for a center is called
“logocentrism”.
• Western though has developed
innumerable terms which operate as
centering principles: God, the Idea, the
World spirit, the Self, and so on.
(Eagleton 131)
Center = Presence = Logos
• “Logos” (Greek for ‘word’) is a term
which in the New Testament carries
the greatest possible concentration of
presence: “In the beginning was the
Word.” Being the origin of all things,
the ‘Word’ underwrites the full
presence of the world . . . . (Selden
88)
Centers in Literary Texts
• Typical concepts of centre in literary
criticism, for instance, would include the
author, the historical context, the reader,
the ideology of a political economy,
each of which provide a ground outside
the text for limiting interpretation.
•
http://courses.nus.edu.sg/course/elljwp/deconstruction.htm
The center rests upon a paradox.
• “The center is, paradoxically,
within the structure and outside it.
The center is at the center of the
totality, and yet, since the center
does not belong to the totality (is
not part of the totality), the totality
has its center elsewhere. The center
is not the center.”
Food for Thought
• Give concrete examples to
support Derrida’s claim that the
definition of structure is
contradictory, namely that the
center is both inside and outside
a structure.
有一句話
鄧禹平
當你童年 小辮雙雙，
情竇之門未開放，
有一句話 想說；
我卻不能講。
當你青春 玉立婷婷，
美眸閃動愛與光，
有一句話 想說；
我卻不敢講。
當你已婚 笑態盈盈，
心靈關着情之窗，
不必說了——埋葬吧 埋葬。
車站留言
陳克華
阿美阿草
我先搭11:37的南下了 我並不恨你
如果颱風明天到達
來電：(00)7127ㄓ998ψ
父留。孩子記得我
先生下再說
錢，不要等我了
我家不在台北，Echo：ECHO
欠你的
工作已找著
很久很久以後，本質
和現象衝突 得很厲害
祝快回家
三隻母雞和甘藍菜
都好你最真誠的愛匆此
再還你。
(孟樊 〈當代新詩理論〉
頁二五七)
•Différance 衍異
Roots in Structuralism
• "In language there are only
differences" (Saussure, Course in General Linguistics).
• The distinctive doctrine of
structuralism: “the belief that the
individual units of any system have
meaning only by virtue of their
relations to one another” (Eagleton,
Literary Theory, 94).
Not binary opposition but différance
• Derrida points out that a binary
opposition is algebraic (a=~b, a equals
not-b), and that two terms can't exist
without reference to the other--light (as
presence) is defined as the absence of
darkness, goodness the absence of evil,
etc. . . .
• http://www.colorado.edu/English/ENGL2012Klages/1997derridaA.html
Not binary opposition but différance
• Deconstruction wants to erase
the boundaries (the slash)
between oppositions, hence to
show that the values and order
implied by the opposition are . . .
not rigid.
• http://www.colorado.edu/English/ENGL2012Klages/1997derridaA.html
Différance 衍異
(1) It means to differ: to
be separate from; to
discriminate
(2) It wishes to defer: to
delay; to postpone
Différance
The one, take note, implies
spatiality (difference) while
the other implies temporality
(deferral).
http://courses.nus.edu.sg/course/elljwp/deconstruction.htm
Différance
• Différance is what prevents the sign
from being a full presence.
• “When we cannot make present a
thing, take hold of it, show it, we
use a sign; we signify a deferred
presence, something absent” (Gras
279).
雨聲說些什麼 余光中
一夜的雨聲說些什麼呢？
樓上的燈問窗外的樹
窗外的燈問巷口的車
一夜的雨聲說些什麼呢？
巷口的車問遠方的路
遠方的路問上游的橋
一夜的雨聲說些什麼呢？
上游的橋問小時的傘
小時的傘問濕了的鞋
一夜的雨聲說些什麼呢？
濕了的鞋問亂叫的蛙
亂叫的蛙問四周的霧
都說些什麼呢，一夜的雨聲？
四週的霧問樓上的燈
樓上的燈問燈下的人
燈下的人抬起頭來說
怎麼還沒有停啊：
從傳說落到了現在
從霏霏落到了湃湃
從簷漏落到了江海
問你啊，蠢蠢的青苔
一夜的雨聲說些什麼呢？
A is a supplément 添補 to B (1)
A = writing
B = God, Truth, love . . . .
•
•
•
•
•
A is added to B.
A substitutes for B.
A is a superfluous addition to B.
A makes up for the absence of B.
A usurps the place of B.
A is a supplément to B (2)
•
•
•
•
•
A makes up for B’s deficiency.
A corrupts the purity of B.
A is necessary so that B can be restored.
A is an accident alienating B from itself.
A is that without which B would be lost.
A is a supplément to B (3)
•
•
•
•
A is that through which B is lost.
A is a danger to B.
A is a remedy to B.
A’s fallacious charm seduces one away from
B.
• A can never satisfy the desire of B.
• A protects against direct encounter with B.
(Johnson 45)
• 像盧梭一樣，索緒爾所看重的也是原本(the original)
與自然。就語言觀之，這原本與自然的是話語，而書
寫卻開始篡奪所以為原本者，抬高了遺忘的地位：要
忘卻的是本源初態。書寫雖假惺惺說可輔助記憶，時
則卻在人為造作、次等與添補等性格幫兇下和活生生
的記憶作對，甚或「轉移」之…
– 「書寫就是遺忘。」此乃因其身為中介的身
分使然，也因理體亦因之而已剝離自身有以
致之。沒有書寫，「理體」就不會魂遊象外。
書寫是「自然」與「原始」的掩飾，也是把
意義立即呈現給理體的體內魂的偽裝。書寫
加諸靈魂的暴力名曰「無意識」
(unconsciousness) 。
• Payne, Michael. 《閱讀理論》. 李奭學譯. 書林. 2005. 頁189-90.
An Example: Identity
• The deconstructionist wants to show that
the notion of identity, which seems so basic,
so "present," actually depends upon the
notion of difference. Identity is only
comprehensible in terms of difference, just
as difference can only be understood in
terms of identity.
•
http://independent-bangladesh.com/news/sep/17/17092005ft.htm
An Example: Identity
• Identity can be considered as an
essential and integrated unity (my
identity involves my name, my status,
my hair colour and the number of my
fingers, among many other things).
The idea of a unity broken into
differences is one possible traditional
idea.
• http://courses.nus.edu.sg/course/elljwp/deconstruction.htm
An Example: Identity
• Another one would be the idea of
an identity that could be contrasted
to other identities as its differences
(and for which it too would be
different). I am different from my
colleagues, my students, my family
and friends and my enemies.
• http://courses.nus.edu.sg/course/elljwp/deconstruction.htm
An Example: Identity
• What was thought to be foundational
(identity) is itself dependent upon the
concept it was privileged over
(difference). The conclusion that
neither term is foundational, but that
both are mutually dependent upon
each other, is precisely the conclusion
that Derrida wants us to reach.
• http://independent-bangladesh.com/news/sep/17/17092005ft.htm
• Deconstruction as a
Critical Approach:
3 Stages
(Barry 74-76)
The Verbal Stage
• Close Reading
• Identify contradictions or paradoxes.
• The polarity of common binary oppositions
(like male and female, day and night, light
and dark) is reversed. And then the second
term, rather than the first, is shown to be
‘privileged’ and regarded as the more
desirable.
(Barry 74)
The Verbal Stage
• Here's the basic method of deconstruction:
find a binary opposition. Show how each
term, rather than being polar opposite of its
paired term, is actually part of it. Then the
structure or opposition which kept them
apart collapses . . . . Ultimately, you can't tell
which is which, and the idea of binary
opposites loses meaning, or is put into
"play“.
http://www.colorado.edu/English/ENGL2012Klages/1997derridaA.html
The Textual Stage
• Look for shifts or breaks in the continuity of
the text (shifts in focus, shifts in time, or
tone, or point of view, or attitude, or pace, or
vocabulary); these shifts reveal instabilities
of attitude, and hence the lack of a fixed
and unified position.
• Omissions are important here, that is, when
a text doesn’t tell us things we would like to
be told.
(Barry 75)
The Linguistic Stage
• Look for linguistic oddities, or
moments in the text when the
adequacy of language itself as a
medium of communication is
called into question.
• 理體中心主義相信真相可經口語論述表呈，解構則質
疑這個千秋大夢，反而開啟了「真相有賴理體成全」
這個說法的「反」積澱。解構在某文本的結構內運
作…並小心翼翼地檢視這個結構，隨後則超越之，名
之曰「罅隙」。透過這個缺口，我們「可以窺見框限
外那尚未命名的光亮」。…解構探索的是「衍異」的
方法， 是「衍/異的產物」。綜言之，解構主義不會
由外破壞解構紋理，而是在居存於結構之中時，在借
取其一切的顛覆資源時，加以思考與斟酌，直到自己
變成自己的祭品才停止。就後ㄧ意義而言，解構所做
的文本批判時則建立在文本所提供的基礎上，而其作
為乃夾處在結構主義與後結構主義之間。
• Payne, Michael. 《閱讀理論》. 李奭學譯. 書林. 2005. 頁175-76.
Structuralism vs. Deconstruction
• “Whereas structuralism finds order and
meaning in the text as in the sentence,
deconstruction finds disorder and a constant
tendency of the language to refute its
apparent sense. Hence the approach’s name:
texts are found to deconstruct themselves
rather than to provide a stable, identifiable
meaning” (Guerin et al. 255)
• See Barry 63-65 for a more comprehensive list.
•The End