Transcript Chapter 33

C HAPTE R
4
AGRICULTURE:
ECONOMICS AND POLICY
Aaaaaaa
Agricultural
Inputs
Chapter Outline:
1
Agriculture Labor
2
Fertilizers and related problems
3
High Yielding Variety (HYV) Seeds
4
Irrigation Water
5
Pesticides & Insecticides
5
Farm Technology
1. Agriculture Labour:
• Human resources who are providing their physical or
mental services in the process of cultivation for
remuneration represent agri. labor.
• The cultivator who himself cultivates the land directly
or he is engaged in cultivation of land indirectly by the
people who have neither capital nor land may be given
the name of agri. labor.
Properties of Agri. Labor
The following are the characteristics of agri. labor:
1. Lack of Skill and Technical Training:
The majority of agri. labor lacks skill and technical training. This is
due to poverty and ignorance. However, those who are concerned
with family labor and they have their own land they get the skill
and technical knowledge on the basis of experience. But on the
whole the agri. labor are illiterate and unskilled. As a result, their
productivity remains low.
Properties of agri. labor….. continued
2. Seasonal Employment:
The agri. labor does not remain employed for the whole year. This
is due to seasonal nature of agri. produce. In certain parts of the
year the agri. labor are under-pressure as the demand for labor is
higher during the months of April to June because of harvesting of
wheat while they remain unemployed before sowing of new
harvest.
Properties of agri. labor….. continued
3. Division of Labor:
In case of industry, the division of labour is possible i.e. the labor
can be divided for each separate line of production. But it is not
possible to follow the technique of division of labor in agriculture.
4. Low level of wages:
The wages earned by agri. Labor are normally lower as compared
with wages earned in other sectors of the economy.
5. Diversity of Labor:
The supply of labor in agri. Sector comprises all genders men,
women, children etc. this is observable during harvesting wheat or
sowing of rice etc. on the other hand, the supply of industrial labor
mostly consist of male.
Properties of agri. labor….. continued
6. Lack of Trade Unions and Collective Bargaining Power:
In industrial sectors the labor are united in the form of trade unions.
They protect their rights. They make collective bargaining. On the
contrary, the agri. Labor in developing countries are hardly
organized in unions. They fail to make collective bargaining. In this
way, they fail to reap the due benefits.
7. Less Mobility:
Agri. Labor are associated with their native regions, localities and
homes. They are hardly mobile to other areas. As a result, there is
abundance of labor in villages while there is shortage of labor in
cities.
Properties of agri. labor….. continued
8. Timing and Regulation of Work:
The industrial labor has to follow the timing and rules and
regulation. He often gets the wages on the basis of hours and days
worked. On the other hand the labor working in rural sector does
not have to follow specific rules and regulation. Agri. Works like
harvesting in summer and watering in winter represent the tough
job. As a result, the nature of agri. Work is difficult than non-agri.
works.
Types of Agri. Labor
1. Family Labor:
This type of agri. Labor is concerned with the head of the family
and other members of the family. These people fully or partially
work on their farms. The head of the family plays dual role i.e. he is
not only labor but also the entrepreneur of the farm.
The labor who work on small farms are concerned with family labor.
Alongwith increase in size of land, the number of family labor
decreases. The members of agri. family like women and children
supervise the harvest and look after the cattle. Again they help their
men in threshing of rice and wheat, crushing of sugar-cane and
picking of cotton.
Types of agri. labor….. continued
2. Permanent Hired Labor:
They consist of the labor having no or less land. Their parents may
be the tenants. These labor are employed on an informal contract
which may be for a year or for a season. These labor are employed
for ploughing, clearing the water-courses and cutting of cattle feed
etc.
3. Temporary and Casual Labor:
The temporary labor are employed for short period. They are
mostly on daily wages. They are employed at the time of sowing,
harvesting, picking of cotton and cutting of sugar-cane. They are
land deprived labor. They also move from one area to other area in
search of job. This mobility remains confined in the villages. The
demand for such labor depends upon type of farming prevailing in
a locality.
Why Supply of Agri. Labor
is more than
Demand for Agri. Labor
Reasons for Excess Supply of Agri. Labor
The supply of agri. labor is far more than their demand. It is due to
the following reasons:
1. Excessive increase in rural population
2. Lack of employment opportunities in cottage and small scale
industries in rural areas.
3. The sever poverty in rural areas which hampers people to get
education and skill.
4. Because of capital intensive technology in agriculture like
tractors, harvesters and threshers, the supply of labor has
exceeded the demand for labor.
Reasons for excessive supply of agri. labor….. continued
6. The lower per acre yield which results in lower incomes of the
farmer leading to lower investment and lower demand for labor.
7. The agri. Activities are mostly seasonal in the country.
Therefore, the farmers have ample time or they have excess
supply.
8. The wages given to agri. Labor are far less than the wages of
labor from other sectors. The agri. Labor get grains in addition
to cash wages. This may compensate the rise in cost of living.
When the rural labor move from villages to cities they have to
face certain additional costs. In such state of affairs the real
wages in cities remain lower even if the monetary wages are
higher. Accordingly, the labor are hesitant to move from rural
areas to urban towns.
Reasons for excessive supply of agri. labor….. continued
9. There is a heavy proportion of uncultivated lands. The lands
are prey to salinity and water-logging. The cultivation is not
possible in hilly tracts and deserted areas. The droughts and
floods badly affect the agri. Sector. As a result of all such
phenomenon we fail to get fairly larger level of output from
our fields. Again, the demand for rural labor remains less
than its supply.
Suggestions to remove rural unemployment
1. The rising population should be checked.
2. The cottage & small scale industries be developed in rural areas,
particularly whose raw material is available from villages.
3. The green revolution be restored in the country. The agri. Lands
be used effectively. The use of high-yielding varieties of seeds,
fertilizers and pesticides be increased. They will increase the
agri. production. The incomes of the farmers will go up. They
will increase investment. In this way, the demand for labor will
increase.
4. The uncultivated Lands be utilized in the country. The waterlogging and salinity be checked. The fragmentation and subdivision of holding be stopped. They all will increase the
demand for labor and unemployment will come down.
2. Fertilizers
• In order to achieve a greater increase in agriculture
productivity, the use of fertilizers is very much inevitable.
Moreover, the success of HYVs also depends upon the greater
use of fertilizers in the fields.
• Fertilizers are used for removing the deficiency of Nitrogen and
Phosphate.
• The farmers have started realizing the need for fertilizers and
the fertilizers have got the status of an important agriculture
input. But in connection with use and production of fertilizers
the farmers have to face the following problems:
• There exists the lack of appropriate balance in the use of
different types of fertilizers. The farmers mostly use nitrogenous
fertilizers without paying due attention to the use of phosphates
fertilizers. The unfavorable ratio of phosphatic and nitrogenous
fertilizers is also responsible for decrease in wheat production.
The desirable ratio is 2:1 or 3:1 depending upon the type of soil.
• The production of fertilizers is lagging behind the consumption
of fertilizers. Accordingly, fertilizers are imported by spending a
big sum which increase the prices of fertilizers. Therefore, there
is a big need to raise the domestic production of fertilizers and it
should be made available to the farmers at the reduced prices.
• The use of fertilizers will be beneficial only if the HYV seeds and
sufficient amount of water is available. The failure to get seeds and
adequate water will reduce the efficiency of fertilizers. Thus, all
the hindrances in the way of availability of seeds and water will
have to be removed.
• The financial weakness of the farmers is also an obstacle in the
way of the use of fertilizers. More particularly, the poverty of the
farmers have checked the farmers to use fertilizers. Therefore, the
policy of subsidized fertilizers may be reinstated for the farmers.
• Fertilizer supplies are not available at the proper time and at
convenient locations. The dealers and other concerning the
distribution delay the supply of fertilizers in order to extract higher
black market prices.
3. High Yielding Varieties (HYVs) Seeds
• The HYV seeds have been found responsible for bringing
remarkable progress in the field of agriculture products. The
modern and improved seeds are not only high yielding but they
do have resistance against pests.
• Now, a days, in addition to wheat and rice, the HYVs have also
been invented in case of sugarcane and cotton etc. the success of
HYV seeds depends upon:
– Greater provision of water
– Greater commitment of fertilizers
– Constant research and effort
High Yielding Verities (HYVs) Seeds….. continued.
• Thus, there is a dire need to introduce the improved seeds,
making them available to the farmers at a proper time at the
cheaper price and subsidized rates and breaking the
monopoly of big landlords over the new and improved
varieties of seeds.
Water
• Water is considered something very important for every crop.
The use of modern inputs like HYV seeds and fertilizers have
greatly enhanced the importance of water.
• The existing systems of water-supply are consisting of:
– canals,
– tubewells
– and the rains.
• Unluckily, in respect of water and its supply to the farmers at the
farm, the farmers have to face a lot of problems. Such problems
are contributing negatively in the agricultural development. They
are as:
– The irrigation through canals is a major source of water supply to
the farmers but such water supply depends upon the waterreservoirs at different barrages and dams. The shortage of water
due to the drought etc badly reduce the water reservoirs. As a
result, the farmers have to face the situation of inadequate water.
Again, the irrigation through canals have led to enhance the
problem of water-logging and salinity. The tail-enders are the
hard hit in respect of water availability. The floods are attached
with the surface water. The floods not only affect the agricultural
land but the rural population also have to be the victim of such
natural vagary.
– Again, the canals are based on rivers. In country, the lack of
rivers is also a major problems in various countries.
4. Pesticides and Insecticides
• Most of the LDCs are not only have warm weather but so many
regions remain under the grip of humidity. As a result, crops are
open to different types of pests and diseases.
For example, cotton crop had to be the pray of “Curl Virus”, this
not only decreased the incomes of the farmers, but our textile
industry suffered a lot which mainly depends upon the cotton
crop.
• Thus the attacks of different types of diseases and pests are
maliciously destroying all the efforts to raise agricultural
production. Accordingly, there is a big need to launch anti-pest
programmes.
• In this connection, the aerial and ground sprays be accelerated.
They have been reported insufficient in quantity and often of
inferior type of sprays.
– Pesticides are chemicals and toxic
– Application techniques are very poor and not standardized.
– The general awareness level is very low for pest
identification and for their appropriate solutions.
– Spray machinery is faulty and not standardized.
– There is cut-throat competition amongst local-cum-national
and multi-national companies.
– The adulteration is commonly observed
– Lack of data regarding pests, damaged/affected parts of plant
with the companies selling agro-chemicals.
– Again, the use of pesticides has proved to be harmful for
human beings also. The agronomists are of the view that the
efforts should be made to manage the pest through nonchemical control tactics.
Farm Mechanization:
 Mechanization of farms means the use of machines for
conducting agricultural operations, replacing the traditional
methods which involve human and animal labour.
 Farm mechanization implies the use of mechanical technology
in the varied farming operations like sewing, harvesting,
thrashing, leveling, watering, spraying, weeding etc. etc.
 The farm mechanical technology includes:
 Chemical Technology – Plant protection measures
 Hydrological Technology --- Tube wells
 Mechanical Technology --- tractors, thrashers, bulldozers
 When all the farming operations are done by machines
displacing animal labour, the mechanization is said to be
Complete mechanization.
 When machines are used along with tradition methods of
cultivation, the mechanization is said to be Partial
mechanization.
Arguments for Farm Mechanization:
• Increase in volume of production:
The use of modern technologies has resulted in the increased
volume of agri. production.
• Reduces dependence upon animal power:
Farm Mechanization reduces dependence upon animal
power which are slow in operation.
• Diversion of land from growing fodder:
Farm Mechanization makes it possible to divert the land
used for growing fodder for animal power. The same land
can be brought under cultivation for growing food and nonfood crops.
Arguments for Farm Mechanization:
• Greater area under cultivation:
Farm Mechanization saves labour, makes the job for leveling and
preparation of land easy and helps in bring more land under
cultivation.
• Timely Water supply, spray etc:
The timely availability of water supply from tubewells, the use of
new package of modern inputs has been made possible only with
the help of mechanization.
• Provides off-farm employment:
it provides off-farm employment to the farmer.
• Self-sufficiency in food:
Mechanization of agriculture helps in achieving self-sufficiency
and surpluses in food and other crops.
Arguments against Farm Mechanization:
The main arguments advanced against mechanized farming are as
follows:
•
Increase in unemployment:
The use of mechanized technology displaces labour and leads
to increase in farm unemployment in the country.
•
Problems of urbanization:
The migration of labour from the mechanized farm sector to the
cities creates problems of urbanization.
•
Social disparity:
Farm mechanization is basically capital intensive and has a big
farmer bias. It, therefore, creates social disparity.
Arguments against Farm Mechanization:
•
Diversion of Capital:
Farm mechanization diverts capital from non-agricultural sector
where there is already abundant labour and the farming
operation are labour intensive.
•
Cattle population surplus:
mechanization has rendered a large number of cattle population
surplus and unnecessary.
Causes of poor adoption of farm technologies
Following are the problems regarding adoption of modern
technologies:
1. Illiteracy of the farmers always serve an obstacle in the way
of adoption of modern technologies.
2. The farmers, particularly small farmers are very much
conservative. hence they are not prepared to accept the new
ideas and challenges.
3. The situation of fragmentation and sub-division of holdings
also restricts the use of modern technologies on the farms.
Causes of poor adoption of farm technologies
4. The small farmers have reduced or marginal financial
resources. Accordingly, they fail to make investment attached
with new technologies. The agri. Banks and commercial banks
are often reluctant to lend to farmers. The government do not
seriously think to assist the farmers. As a result, the
insemination of modern technology
remains limited,
particularly as far as the small farmers are concerned.
Suggestions Regarding adoption of farm technologies
1. The agri. Education and extension services be enlarged.
2. The easy credit facilities be provided to the farmers so that they
could purchase technologies and chemicals etc.
3. Price support system be implemented effectively, as it would
increase the incomes of the farmers. Hence they would be able
to acquire modern technologies.
4. The sub-division of holdings be checked as it is a big obstacle
in the way of application of modern technology.
5. The farmers be given incentives and subsidies in connection
with the use of modern inputs, fertilizers, tractors, tubewells
and harvesters etc.
Thank You