Transcript Slide 1
Chapter 10 The Scientific Revolution and the Age of the Enlightenment th 17 Century Readings: The meaning of the scientific revolution – pages 246-248 The age of enlightenment – pages 248- 249 Political thought – page 250 Laissez-Faire Economics – pages 257-258 Enlightened despotism – page 260 The Meaning of Scientific Revolution The scientific revolution destroyed the medieval world view in which the earth occupied the central position, that heaven lay just beyond the fixed stars, and every object had its place in a hierarchical and qualitative order. The church was losing credibility as more people were becoming independent thinkers. Science had given people reason to question the old order. Question: Can you identify 21st century examples? Nicolas Copernicus (1473-1543) The earth is a planet that orbits the sun along with other planets. He did not want to publish his work for fear of controversy but was persuaded by his friends (1543). His theory offended the church which still controlled the universities and the pulpit (church). The book was banned (not allowed). The book became a topic of popular discussion 50 years later. Galileo (1565-1642) The astronomer and physicist who shattered the medieval conception of the cosmos (spaces beyond earth) and shaped the modern scientific outlook. Rejected the church’s medieval division of the universe into higher and lower realms (as explained by ancient philosophers). Built a telescope and made observations of the moon and stars which were different than those of earlier philosophers. Discovered 4 moons that orbit Jupiter; that a celestial body could move around another body other than the earth; that the earth was not the common centre of the universe; that a one body could orbit another while orbiting the sun (moon around earth, earth around sun). Galileo Galileo applied math to the study of movement Rejected the idea that, when a rock falls it is because it is striving to reach its proper place in the universe. Rather, he said that motion is the relationship of bodies to time and distance. He used math to demonstrate it. Galileo challenged those who put faith in old philosophers over investigative thinking and considering new information and criticized Roman Catholic authorities for suppressing modern science In 1616 his works were censored (banned – not allowed to be read), he was found guilty by the Inquisition and imprisoned (house arrest). In 1820 (204 years later!!!) the church removed his works from the censored list Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) Laws of Planetary Motion 1. 2. 3. Discovered three basic laws of planetary motion Planets move in elliptical (oval) orbits (NOT Circles) Planets do not move at uniform speed (sometimes they move faster and other times they move slower) but accelerate as they near the sun Found a mathematical relationship between the time it takes a planet to compete its orbit of the sun and its average distance from the sun which can be used to calculate a planet’s position and velocity (speed) at a particular time Isaac Newton (1642-1727) Explained the laws of gravity which linked the astronomy of Copernicus and Kepler with the physics of Galileo. Newton invented calculus which explained the physical laws in mathematical equations. Newton’s 3 Laws 1. The principle of inertia: that a body at rest remains at rest unless acted on by a force, and that a body in rectilinear motion (straight line) continues to move in a straight line at the same velocity (speed) unless a force acts on it. A moving body does not require force to keep it in motion. Once started, bodies continue to move. Motion is as natural a condition as is rest. Newton (continued) 2. 3. A given force (impact / bump) produces a measurable change in a body’s velocity (speed / movement). A body’s change of velocity is proportional to the force acting on it. For every action or force there is an equal and opposite reaction or force. The sun pulls the earth with the same force that the earth exercises on the sun. Francis Bacon (1561-1626) Not a scientist but an advocate (supporter) of the scientific method. He believed that little progress had been made over the years, because the church bent theories of nature to support Christian scripture, which prevented independent thinking and blocked new knowledge. He advocated the Inductive Approach: careful observation of nature and the systematic accumulation (gathering) of data, drawing general laws from the knowledge and testing through constant experimentation. Sounds like a science laboratory! He insisted on the need for verification. Rene Descartes (1596-1650) Creator of the deductive approach, which is derived by following successive steps based on earlier principles. If this… then that… Descartes is also regarded as the founder of modern philosophy. He believed that it was he who was doing the doubting and thinking. He said, “I think therefore I am” Question: What does the above quote mean to you? Write the answer down next the quote. 1. 2. New ideas about the purpose of life became popular. Such as, If earth is one of a billion planets, Does God exist for only our earth or is there a God for the entire universe? If there are billions of planets, are there other intelligent life forms out there and if so, what are their beliefs in the all powerful being we refer to as God? Answer the Questions and tell the class your opinion. Louis Pascal (1623-1662) a French scientist and Catholic believed that the eternal silence of these infinite spaces could stir doubt, uncertainty, and anxiety, which could threaten Catholic belief. Scholars set reason above all else….. Reason comes first Scholars: Believed that reason must serve religion Denounced magic spells, demons, witchcraft and astrology as vulgar superstition Questioned all inherited opinions and traditions Religious the doctrine (reasoning) of religion Not all scholars attacked religion. Some claimed that they were unveiling the laws of nature as created by God The masses: Still believed in superstitions Still feared stirring the anger of the Christian God 1-5 The bible was no longer considered the literal word of God. The clergy began to lose their position (status) as the judges of what was considered to be knowledge. God’s miracles were being explained as naturally occurring phenomenon. Debates raged over the senseless wars fought in the name of religion. Question: What is water boarding? Discussion: What kind of people do this to other people? In one of the first histories of all the world’s religions (published in 1723), the engraver Bernard Picart depicted the Inquisition as cold and ruthlessly interrogating and as barbarous in its use of torture. The bottom centre is the practice of water-boarding. (Bibliotheque des Arts Decoratifs, Paris, France/Archives Charment/ The Bridgeman Art Library) See page 249 in your textbook. Prison conditions during the enlightenment were awful. Discussion: What are prison conditions like in the USA, Canada, China, Thailand, Mexico, North Korea? Christian View of Human Nature was Challenged Philosophes criticized Christians for: for declaring that human nature is evil and humans as helpless without God’s assistance and, for focusing on heaven instead of quality of our life on earth for claiming their interpretation of the bible as truth Philosophes argued that to establish an enlightened society, the corrupt power of the church must come to an end. Question. How might two people grow to think and act differently if one is raised according to the traditional Christian view (above) and the other is raised to believe that her nature is not evil and that she has control and power over her own destiny? The philosophes attempted to use the scientific method to uncover societal defects and discover ways to reform society. Question. How can the scientific method help solve some of the problems our society faces? Write your answer down. A possible answer to the question on the previous slide is that yes, the scientific method has led to new sciences. Psychology, sociology, economics and politics are all fields of Social Science that have helped to improve the plight of the less fortunate. Examples include: Social programs, pensions, insurance, international trade agreements, treatments for depression, anxiety and post traumatic stress disorder. Discussion / Question: Write down a few examples of how science has improved your life or the lives of your family members or society in the 21st century? Voltaire (1694-1778) Recognized as the leader of the French Enlightenment Exiled to England in 1720s He professed that Christianity was superstition and would be destroyed by reason Christianity made no logical sense but they still committed crimes and murdered each other to force obedience to their beliefs, which benefitted a minority of religious leaders Deists sought a natural religion of reason and science They rejected the Christian political power structure Denied the bible was God’s revelation, denied the virgin birth, Jesus walking on water, the resurrection, and that the reward for obeying Christian law was eternal reward in heaven. Question: Do you have any of your own beliefs that can not be supported by reason? Write your answer down. Thoughts on Democracy The philosophes favoured constitutional government (very early modern democracy) but did not have faith that the masses of people would make competent participants in a democracy. Question. Why do you think they felt this way? Write your answer down. The philosophes believed that because the masses were not educated, that they did not have the skill to think, reflect upon alternatives and be patient in the search for good answers to societal problems. They believed that because the masses were very superstitious (religious), emotionally susceptible because of inexperience in critical thinking. They believed that the masses could be easily bribed because they were poor (economically vulnerable). Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) Leviathan Hobbes wrote, “only unlimited power of a sovereign could contain the human passions that disrupt the social order and threaten civilized life; only absolute rule could provide an environment secure enough for people to pursue their individual interests” Question. What if the interests of the individuals (citizens) were disapproved of by the person in power? Would the citizen still be able to pursue his own interests? Hobbes was more pessimistic than most, about the deficits (weaknesses) of human nature. Most philosophes disagreed with his gloomy view of human nature. However, most philosophes agreed with his secular approach to politics and his criticism of Divine Right of Kings. Questions. What is the Divine Right of Kings? If you agree with Hobbes criticism of the Divine Right of Kings, explain your reasons. Write your answers down. Hobbes summarized Critical of divine right of kings but did believe that absolute power was necessary to contain the human passions that disrupt the social order and threaten civilized life People are selfish and characterized by competition and dissention rather than cooperation His main concern was in protecting the social order from human antisocial tendencies Question: Do Chinese or American / Canadian society have political structures to manage what Hobbes describes? A possible answer to the last question would be that the CIA, CSIS, MI5, police and military in the 21st century are agents of social control, which Hobbes said were necessary. Question. Name three social controls that you know of in China and the USA or Canada. John Locke Locke’s believed that, human nature is Good People are born with Natural Rights to Life, Liberty, and property The state should protect these Rights The state does not have the right to deny people of their natural rights. Locke disagreed with Hobbes justification of absolute monarchy. He believed in Constitutional Government. “The power to govern derives from the consent of the governed and the state’s authority is limited by agreement…Rulers hold their authority under the law and when they act outside the law, they forfeit their right to govern.” Both Hobbes and Locke agreed that the state needs to exist to provide for the security and well being of the citizens, but they had totally different ideas of how to achieve it. Locke Summarized People have the capacity for reason and freedom We are born Free and we are born Rational Political life can be guided by rational principles We have a right to resist despotic authority The American Declaration of Independence restated Locke’s principles to justify the American Revolution Natural Rights State interference with personal property leads to the destruction of liberty The World’s Policeman A common belief around the globe is that the USA interferes in affairs of other independent nations simply to maintain its own economic advantage. Can you now see that their interference may be based on a fundamental difference in VALUES and RIGHTS. Think about the differences in regimes. USA vs. Iraq, Iran, Russia, Libya, Syria. Question. 1. If you had to leave China today and live in one of the countries named above, which country would you choose? 2. Why would choose that country over the others? Write your answers down and explain your reason. Question. Do you think that humans are born selfish, with the inability to cooperate and competitive to the point of self destruction or do you believe that humans are essentially good? Question. If all of the citizens of China could vote today, and pick either Hobbes or Locke’s method of rule, which do think they would choose? Why would they make the choice they did? Montesquieu (1689-1755) Spirit of Laws was published in 1748. He believed, 1. Political and social behaviour must be studied in relation to geographic, economic, and historic conditions. This sounds like modern political science. 2. Each society requires constitutional forms and laws that pay heed to the character of its people. 3. Considered despotism corrupt because it was unchecked by law. The despot can do what ever he wants, without regard for the suffering of the people, but thinking only of his own passions at the expense of all others. 4. In despotic society, economic activity slows to a halt, because entrepreneurial people fear the loss of their efforts. Discussion. Give examples of each in history and today. Montesquieu’s recommendations Separation of powers: 1. Legislative – law makers (politicians) 2. Executive – civil servants 3. Judiciary – judges Question. Why is it that if the same group that prosecutes a crime (executive) is the one that judges it (judiciary), liberty can not be preserved? In a good government, one power balances another power. The liberal tradition took from Montesquieu: 1. constitutional government 2. the rule of law 3. separation of powers 4. freedom of thought 5. protection of individual liberty 6. religious toleration Question. To what extent do these things exist in the west and east today? Write your answers down. Voltaire Hated arbitrary power because it is based on individual choice and not subject to established law Freedom meant and established code that governed all people equally However, Voltaire was not a democrat. He did not have confidence in the abilities of the common people to participate in government He did encourage the following reforms 1. Freedom of the press 2. Religious toleration 3. A fair system of criminal justice 4. Proportional taxation 5. Reduction of privilliges of the clergy and nobility Rousseau In the Greek tradition of the city state and the polis, Rousseau promoted 1. a community in which the citizens participated in the decision making 2. a democracy where all men participated as members of a committed community 3. Citizens, not their representatives, as the governors 4. equality He condemned despotic monarchy, the divine right theory of kingship and the view that the people should be governed by the Lords and Clergy who inherited positions and benefited from special privilege Rousseau’s Critics His critics say that his hope for a body of citizens that think alike, comes close to a collectivism and totalitarianism He did not value constitutional limitations (division of powers) or consider safeguards to protect individual and minority rights from a tyrannical majority He rejected Locke’s view that citizens posses independent rights and that citizens have the right to act against the state Question and Discussion. Do you think that citizens should possess the right to act against the state? Read and Comment in class Read the SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC THOUGHT Page 254 (bottom left section of the page only). Question. 1. What does this mean to you? 2. Pick one idea from this paragraph and tell the class what it means to you. 3. Prepare a 1 minute talk and be prepared to discuss it. Locke’s essay (1690) Concerning Human Understanding Locke argued that, 1. the human mind is a blank slate, empty of opinion and bias, at the time of birth. 2. the human mind forms impressions and opinions based on contact and experience with the world. 3. knowledge and beliefs are derived from experience. 4. Individuality is derived from personal experiences. Questions. Who are you? What do you think about this? Write down your answers. The implications of his essay… If humans are born a blank slate, with no innate (preprogrammed) ideas, then humans, contrary to the Christian doctrine (religious beliefs) are not born with Original Sin and are not depraved (bad) in nature. If people are provided with a healthy environment (discuss this), and education, they will behave morally, they will become intelligent and productive citizens. The philosophes believed that evil came about from bad influences and institutions and a poor education. Question. Why do you agree or disagree with this? Rousseau’s Emile (1762) Read aloud, page 254 – last two paragraphs. This work is considered to be the most important work of the Enlightenment educational thought. Discussion: How is this thinking different from that which governed your childhood and early school years? How is this educational thought brought to life at JLU? Freedom and conscience of thought The philosophes considered religious persecution to be humanity’s most wicked offense against reason. The examples that demonstrate the greatest offenses were, 1. the Catholic Church’s burning of heretics (non Catholics) and 2. the slaughter of Muslims and Jews during the First Crusade. Censorship of Philosophes ideas Then: The Church regularly burned books that expressed ideas that led people to question the position of the Catholic Church. Consider the quality of life for people that lived in a state which attempted to control their thinking by making the choices for them, as to what they could read and think about. Consider the life of the people who lived in a state that punished people for expressing ideas that were different than those of the rulers. Now: The west only restricts speech when it gets to the point where it promotes hate. Question. Has China eased its restrictions on censorship and freedom of speech in the past decade? Philosophes opinion of War War is barbaric and without reason. War is the idea of power hungry monarchs and supported by fanatical (crazy) clergy, wicked army leaders and ignorant commoners (those who choose to not reflect on the consequences of their actions). There is nothing heroic about battle. Question. When is war and violence justified? Write you answer down. Philosophes on Slavery Slavery violates the fundamental principle of justice and is derived from the base human desire to dominate and exploit other human beings. Some would say that the argument for slavery is similar to the argument that says that a man has a right to beat his wife if she displeases him. Question. Were comfort women slaves? “Men and their liberty are not objects of commerce; they can be neither sold nor bought” Philosophes on Women’s Rights Most philosophes viewed women as intellectually and morally inferior (less) to men. Most philosophes believed that nature gave men power over women and that women have infirmities that are not curable. See Rouseau’s quote on the bottom of page 256. The result of the philosophes arguments for equality and liberty and an end to slavery, laid the foundation for the beginning of the Women’s Movement. Question. What is the Women’s movement? Adam Smith and Laissez-Faire Economics Adam Smith (1776) An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations Mercantilism ~ definition ~ the state should regulate business, control the resources of the nation, encourage exports, discourage imports and build up reserves of precious metals. Smith argued that Mercantilism was the wrong way to measure the wealth of a nation. Question. Do you agree or disagree with Smith? Why? Write your answer down. Laissez-Faire Economics Smith believed: 1. The real basis of a country’s wealth is measured by the quantity and quality of its goods and services, not by its store of precious metals. 2. He argued that the state should not interfere with the market. 3. The state should limit its authority to justice and national defense. Question. Using this historical perspective on economic theory, explain how The Peoples Republic of China has adopted some these ideas over the past 25 years? North America (1775) The French and English continued to fight over their claims in the New World. By 1775, the British victory over the French, in North America, deprived the French of almost all their colonies. The cost to the British, to win the war and protect the colonists from the French and to continue to provide troops to assist the colonists in the defense against Native North Americans was very expensive. British citizens were heavily taxed. Colonists rebelled against import duties and taxation. July 4th, 1776 – The American Colonies adopted the Declaration of Independence, written by Thomas Jefferson, based on the Theory of Natural Rights of Locke. Each of the 13 colonies had its own elected assembly and the Americans quickly gained political experience and the skill to govern themselves. The Enlightenment ideals which included confidence in reason, freedom of religion and thought and the principle of natural rights was strong in America. Statement. It is often said that the USA is a very young country with very new traditions, little substance and not much history in comparison to the east. Question. If the colonizers and early immigrants to the USA were Europeans who chose to live by the philosophes ideals, is the above statement not really accurate? Considering that western civilization began 5,000 years ago in Mesopotamia and the USA is simply another western territory, it is easy to argue that North Americans also have a 5,000 year old history. American Victory (1783) George Washington was a great leader. The French helped the Americans with money and supplies and entered on the side of America in 1778. Britain had difficulty transporting supplies across the ocean while fighting the French in the West Indies and elsewhere and could not commit to ensure victory. American victory was seen as success against tyranny. The 13 states drafted constitutions that, 1. Protected individual rights 2. Rejected Monarchy and hereditary aristocracy 3. Derived power from the people 4. Separated powers and included checks and balances to safeguard against abuse of power 5. Included a Bill of Rights to protect individual human rights Slaves and Women did not share these freedoms, but to the rest of the world, it appeared that Americans were creating a freer and better society. The Enlightenment and the Modern Mentality The Legacy of the philosophes: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Scrutinized authority and tradition Valued science and technology as a means for promoting human betterment Wanted to free the mind from bonds of ignorance and superstition and rescue people from intolerance cruelty and oppression Because of the philosophes efforts, torture, which was endorsed by the Christian Church and their states, was abolished The norm moved towards religious toleration, freedom of speech and freedom of the press Europe to America The Declaration of Independence (1776) Articulated Locke’s principles 1. 2. 3. Government derives it authority from the people being governed Human beings are born with natural rights and the government has a responsibility to protect them Citizens have the right to resist a government that deprives them of these rights The Declaration of Independence included Mostesquieu’s principle of separation of powers, to safeguard against despotic power Human Nature broke Philosophes with the traditional Christian views. Philosophes said that 1. humans are not born in sin 2. that suffering and misery are not ordained by God 3. relief from suffering was not only God’s to give 4. social inequality was not God’s decision (divine right) 5. Eternal damnation was not a fair punishment for not following the bible as the law The philosophes saw injustice and suffering as a man made problem that could be solved through reason. Did the Philosophes make a difference? With all the progress that seemed to come about from the ideas of the Philosophes, how did the atrocities of the 20th Century manage to occur? World War I and World War II The near genocide of the Jews by German Nazis State sponsored mass murder and numerous near genocides of other people from around the world Development of weapons of mass destruction The ideas of the philosophes remain intact and students of history are able to keep them alive for future generations to learn from.