Transcript Structural Analysis of English Syntax Part I. Chapter 8
Structural Analysis of English Syntax
Part II - C. Chapter 8 (pp. 98-114) Herndon, J.H. (1999). A Survey of modern grammars (2 nd Facsim ed.) Forth Worth, TX. ; Hartcourt College Publishers.
Prepared by: Aníbal Muñoz Claudio Course: Educ 8145 Professor: Dr. María A. Irizarry Date: September 13, 2005
Preview
Definitions Inflectional Paradigms Derivational Paradigms Intonation Patterns Position or Word Order Form Class Words
Nouns –Class I, Pronouns, Verbs –Class II, Adjectives –Class III, Adverbs – Class IV
Function Words (
determiners, conjunctions, others)
Syntactic Combinations, Phrase Analysis, Immediate Constituent Analysis, and Sentence Formulas
What is syntax?
The forms that English words may be given and the sequences in which they are arranged with other words to express larger, more complex meanings make up the
syntactic pattern
or system of English. The syntax of English –the third level of grammar and the third level of analysis –deals with the more complex combinations of linguistic forms. Identification of a word class is not, then, a matter of “What do these words mean?” but “How do they fit into a pattern?” “What forms will they take?” and “How do they behave in combination with other forms?” (1999, Herndon) The way in which words are put together to form constructions (American Heritage Dictionary)
Paradigms
1.
The devices used by structuralists for establishing word classes in English include consideration of ways in which certain types of words can be grouped into sets, called
paradigms
, on the basis of the inflectional and derivational affixes that they will take.
Inflectional paradigms
They are sets of forms. Each set is made up of a base form (singular), plus whatever morphemic changes –either the addition of suffixes or sound changes or both –may be used to adapt the base form to certain functions
without changing the lexical meaning.
(1999, Herndon) For example, the inflectional paradigm for the class form (NOUNS) is made up as follows.
Nouns – inflectional paradigms
Base (singular)
Base Form + plural Base Form + possessive Base Form + Possessive plural
teacher teachers teacher’s
teacher’s desk
teachers’
teachers’ rights
student students student’s students’
2. Derivational paradigms
Derivational paradigms are made up of sets of endings that may be attached to bases
that may shift their lexical meaning or part of speech or both
. Some examples of noun marking derivational suffixes are
–hood, -ship, -ness,
and
–ment.
Words having these endings are recognized, even in isolation, as nouns. (1999, Herndon) Noun Derivational paradigms friend friendship neighbor neighborhood dark (adj.) darkness (N) establish (V) Establishment (N)
Other aspects of syntax
Intonation Patterns made by the differences of stress, pitch, and juncture often identify a form as belonging to one word class or another. For example the difference between the noun
contract
– contrasts and the verb
contract,
is determined by differences in intonation pattern. (1999, Herndon)
Position or Word Order
– word classes are usually identifiable on the basis of where they appear in a given sentence. Many words are not recognizable as a single part of speech when they are met in isolation. According to Herndon, we do not need the structuralists to prove this, but rather to rely on Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary, which lists the word context.
round
as adjective, noun, transitive verb, preposition, and adverb. In order to isolate the definition that you seek, you must have the word in a
Function Words
Some words in English may not make use of the structural paradigms. They have no inflectional or derivational endings. They perform a function in the system –outside of the grammatical relationships they signify, they have little or no meaning.
The categories of function words are often called
closed classes
because new forms are rarely, if ever, added to them.
Function words represent only a few hundred of the more than half a million words in English. (1999, Herndon) determiners subordinators Auxiliary verbs conjunctions Function words qualifiers prepositions interrogatives
1.
2.
Form Class Words 1. Nouns –Class I Words
Inflectional paradigm –generally speaking, nouns are forms that will accept inflections. (slide # 5) Derivational paradigms –many forms may be recognized as nouns on the basis of various noun-marking derivational suffixes added either to bound bases or to other words these endings. For example,
-er, -or,
and
–ment
–often words belonging to other classes. There are literally dozens of adapt verbs to use as nouns; Examples: verbs + derivational suffix = noun work + er = worker play + er = player stimulate + or = stimulator govern + ment = government 3. Intonation Pattern signals a verb. – differences of stress may distinguish nouns from verbs (slide # 7). Heavier stress on the first syllable almost always signals a noun; heavier stress on the second
noun
-
súspect / verb -suspéct
4. Position or Word Order Nouns fill certain characteristic positions in relation to other parts of speech. The most obvious is that just before the verb.
Examples: The _____ is here. These _____ are beautiful!
5. Function Words –In English, noun determiners immediately precede nouns or precede them with certain words in between. Some noun determiners never appear except when followed by a noun and invariably signal its coming. These are the articles
the, a,
and
an
and the possessive pronouns
my, your, our,
and
their.
Other pronouns are quite frequently used as determiners, but have other functions as well. These are the demonstratives
this, that, these,
and
those
and the other possessive pronouns,
his, her,
and
its.
Pronouns
When considered a separate class, pronouns are Class II words, but most school texts consider them a subcategory of nouns.
In contrast to nouns, pronouns constitute a closed class –no new pronouns have been added to English for hundreds of years. If anything, the class has become smaller instead, as few speakers now make use of the forms
thee, thou, thy,
and
thine.
Personal pronouns fall into an inflectional paradigm that is similar to, but not exactly like, that for nouns. Forms show both number and the possessive case, but they also show gender and the nominative and objective cases.
Example: he / his / him (see enclosures) Pronouns, in most cases are identifiable by the ability of each to substitute for a type of noun or noun phrase.
(1999, Herndon)
2. Verbs Class II Words
a. Inflectional Paradigm
– English verbs commonly have five forms , the base form and four inflected forms. These inflections are the present 3 rd person singular, the past, the present participle, and the past participle form. (see example below) The present 3 rd singular is similar in many ways to the noun inflections The past tense, or preterit, is commonly formed with the
–ed
ending, but there are several irregular allomorphs.
The present participle is formed by an –
ing
suffix.
The past participle makes use of
–ed
and –
en
endings or internal vowel changes. In a class by itself in many ways is the verb
be
, which has eight inflected forms (be, am, is, are, was, were, being, been) base 3 rd sing. past present part. past part.
eat eats ate eating eaten
2. Verbs –cont.
b.
Derivational Paradigm
Some verbs are marked by suffixes such as the and nouns, the other verbs.
–
ize
adjectives, and the
–ate
ending added to bound bases added to bound bases, nouns, and
–fy
added to bound bases, nouns, and adjectives, and the prefix
–en
added to nouns and some Examples: summarize, beautify, locate, etc.
c.
Intonation Pattern
contrasts with nouns marked by intonation See
d. Position or Word Order
1.
2.
Some positions mark verbs. Verbs commonly occupy the first position in requests, a position between two nouns or pronouns, or between noun and adjective or adverb. Here’s a simple set of test frames for verbs.
The child may___ something.
The children ___ friendly.
3.
___ you ____ me that?
e. Function Words
have
and
be
– function words that work with verbs are the various forms of and the modals
can, may, should, will,
and others. (1999, Herndon)
a.
b.
3. Adjectives – Class III Words
Inflectional Paradigms
True adjectives commonly show comparative and superlative degrees by adding –
er
and
–est
inflections. Derived adjectives make use of the function words
more
and
most
for this purpose.
b. (Cont.) Adjectives are derived from other words by adding such endings as
–y, ic,
and –
ous
to nouns and bound bases; -
ful
and
–less
to nouns;
-able,-ent,
and
–ive
to verbs and bound bases.
Derivational Paradigms
True adjectives fit into derivational patterns with nouns formed by adding the suffix –
ness
the suffix
–ly
to true adjectives and adverbs formed by adding to the same adjectives. (1999, Herndon)
happy-happiness-happily
1. greed greed
y
2. class class
ic
3. danger danger
ous
4. need need
ful
5. home home
less
6. manage manage
able
7. differ differ
ent
8. persuade persuas
ive
4. Adverbs – Class IV Words
Many adverbs share several structural distinctions with adjectives
a.
b.
Inflectional Paradigm c.
In a few cases adverbs admit the comparative and superlative degree endings (er, est), usually they use
more
and
most.
Some adverbs have a base form that also serves as an adjective (fast, hard). In this case the class will depend upon other structural devices.
d.
( 1999, Herndon)
Derivational Paradigm
suffix is the –
ly
added to (soft+ ly), (bare + ly). .
–the most common adverb-marking adjectives (common + ly), There are other combinations.
Intonation Patterns
The intonation patterns of larger structures often show adverbs patterning closely with verbs, in contrast to adjectives which usually pattern with nouns.
Word Order
Most adverbs in English are extremely mobile. Various types may fill any of several positions or positional combinations, but almost all can fill the position following a noun-verb-complement sequence like the following.
The boy ate his cookies _____.
(1999, Herndon)
Function Words
Determiners
– The workings of the determiner class of function words is described in some detail under the form class with which they appear, the nouns or class I words. The most commonly used members are
the, a, an,
and
some.
Auxiliary Verbs
– Forms of the auxiliaries
have
and
be
work with various inflected forms of verbs. Modals are usually considered a subcategory because their operation is somewhat different from that of
have
and
be.
Other auxiliaries are forms of
get
and
do.
Qualifiers
– They work with both adjectives and adverbs. Some of the most frequently used are
more, most, very, quite, rather,
and
somewhat.
Prepositions
time, etc.) – They introduce modifying or qualifying phrases set apart by intonation pattern and the presence of the preposition form. They indicate the relation of words with other words. (eg. location, direction,
Function Words (cont.)
Conjunctions
– They always work as coordinators of linguistics forms or syntactic units having equal value. The two most frequently used are
and
and but.
Subordinators
– they connect dependent clauses and include words such as
because, after, although, unless
, and so on, as well as the relative pronouns
who, whose, which,
and
that.
Interrogatives
– they operate in the formation of questions and include words such as
when, where, why, how
and so on, as well as the interrogative pronouns
who, which, and what
Syntactic Combinations
When smaller structures enter into combinations, some consideration must be given to the relationship holding between them within the combination. For example, “Birds fly” consists of structures commonly called noun and verb.
The combination is a larger structure called a
sentence
. Within the sentence both words have a
structure
and a
function.
Analysis of any larger structure involves sorting its parts into types of smaller structures and identifying the functions performed in the combination.
Structural grammarians vary somewhat in the methods used to analyze complex grammatical structures in English. (1999, Herndon) This chapter discusses three of the principal methodologies used by grammarians. (1999, Herndon) a.
phrase analysis formulas
b.
immediate constituent analysis
c.
sentence
Phrase Analysis
One of these methods begins with consideration of word “clusters that are set apart on the basis of the intonation pattern that they show. A group of words appearing between well-defined junctures is described as a
phrase or cluster
. The principal word in each phrase is called the
head word.
In general, phrases function as units in larger structures, and they fall into groups based on the type of function the
unit
performs.
Noun phrases, verb phrases, and various types of modifying or qualifying phrases –adjectival, adverbial, prepositional, and so on –may be defined.
Analysis may then be made of relationships holding between the various types when they appear in various combinations. Finally, clause and sentence types may be defined. (1999, Herndon)
Immediate Constituent Analysis (IC)
The second method and perhaps the most widely used means of dealing with English syntax is the IC.
Sentences are divided into their principal parts or
immediate constituents
. Each of these is then divided and subdivided until the ultimate constituents of the sentence are reached .
1. The boys / shyly touched the puppy.
shyly touched / the puppy.
The / boys / shyly / touched / the / puppy.
Small puppies / are fat and frisky.
are / fat and frisky.
Small / puppies / are/ fat / and/ frisky.
Further cuts might even divide the plural morphemes from boy and puppy, the inflectional
–ed
from
touch
and the
ly
from
shy.
ICs –structures and functions
In ICs the relationship is analyzed and identified after each cut is made. The first cut yields structures that function as subject and predicate.
The boys shyly touched the puppy.
Structures: (NP) noun phrase (VP) verb phrase Functions: Subject Predicate
The second cut yields structures that function as verbal element and complement (or object) within the predicate
The boys shyly touched the puppy.
Structures: VP NP Functions: Verbal Element Complement (Object)
ICs – final cut
The boys shyly touched the puppy.
S. Det. Noun Adverb Verb Det. Noun F. Mod. Head Modifier Head Mod. Head
Among other things, this type of analysis gives rise to the practice of referring to
noun-headed and verb-headed structures
when speaking of phrases. (1999, Herndon)
Sentence Formulas
The third method is one that begins with a consideration of basic sentence patterns and proceeds to analyze the relationships between the different parts of the patterns Each of the parts of a very simple sentence can be expanded in various ways so that more complex sentence patterns –and more complex layers of relationships –are produced Sentence patterns of the simplest noun-verb-noun, noun-verb-adjective types are considered first.
The sentence parts are designated by the numbers and letters assigned to their form class or function word groups. ( 1999, Herndon)
Form Class Words 1.
Noun or pronoun 2.
A short sample list might include these groups:
Verb 3.
4.
Adjective Adverb Function Words D. Determiner A. Auxiliary Q. Qualifier P. Preposition
Practice Exercises
Sentence Type I variations 1-2 D – 1 – 2 The woman spoke.
D – 3 – 1 – 2 The beautiful woman spoke.
D – 1 – 2 – 4 D – Q – 3 – 1 – 2 Sentence Type II variations 1 – 2 – 3 D – 1 – 2 – 3 D – 3 – 1 – 2 – 3 D – 1 – 2 – Q – 3 D – 3 – 1 – 2 – Q – 3 Sentence Type III variations 1 – 2 – 1 D – 1 – 2 – 1 D – 1 – P – D – 1 – 2 – 1 D – 1 – 2 – 1 – P – D – 1 Sentence Type IV
Summary
Structural analysis of English syntax divides the parts of speech into
form class words
and
function words.
form class words are identified on the basis of the following criteria: Categories of
1. inflectional paradigm 2. derivational paradigm 3. intonation pattern 4. word order 5. function words that work with them Several methods of phrase and sentence analysis have been used by structuralists. The most influential one is called immediate constituent (IC) analysis.
(1999, Herndon)
References
Herndon, J.H. (1999). A Survey of modern grammars (2 nd Facsim ed.). Forth Worth, TX.: Hartcourt College Publishers.
Verspoor, M., Sauter, K. (2000). English sentence analysis: an introductory course. Philadelphia, PA. John Benjamins Publishing Co.
Benson, M., Benson, E., & Ilson, R. (1997). The BBI dictionary of English word combinations. Philadelphia, PA. John Benjamins Publishing Co.
American Heritage Dictionary. Houghton Mifflin Co.