Transcript Evaluating Arguments - Jennifer Martin's Course Website

Simon & Schuster Handbook for Writers, 10/e
Ch. 15 & 16: Argumentation
• An argument is a line of reasoning intended to
persuade the reader or listener to agree with a
particular viewpoint or take a particular action.
• When writing an argument, an author’s job is make a point and
support his/her point with adequate and relevant support.
• When reading an argument, a reader’s job is to identify the author’s
point and evaluate his/her support.
Argumentative Writing
• Topics are controversial in nature—that is,
there is more than one side to the argument.
Should the drinking age be
lowered to 18?
YES
NO
The Parts of an Argument
1. Issue: A concern or problem about which people
disagree
(e.g. The welfare system)
2. Claim: The writer’s opinion about the issue
(e.g. The welfare system is unjust and needs reform)
3. Support: The details that demonstrate the claim is
correct and should be accepted. (e.g. people cheat the
system, deserving people can’t get benefits, and it
costs taxpayers too much money.)
There are three types of support:
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Logical appeals (reasons with evidence)
Emotional appeals
Ethical appeals
See Ch. 3B
(pp. 18-19)
Aristotle’s modes of persuasion
Logos
Appeal to the readers’ sense of logic;
provide evidence to support a claim
Pathos
Ethos
Appeal to the readers’ emotions and
motivations with vivid emotional
language and sensory details
Ethical appeal to the authority or
credibility of the writer (we tend to
believe people we respect)
Logical Appeals
Types of Evidence for Arguments:
• Facts: objective truths; facts should appeal to readers’
sense of logic
• Statistics: numerical data (figures, percentages, averages)
from credible sources
• Quotations and citations: statements from an authority/
recognized expert on the subject
• Examples: descriptions of situations used to illustrate or
explain a point; typical anecdotes to demonstrate truth
• Personal experiences: personal stories/accounts
• Analogies: comparisons to similar cases
Logical Fallacies (errors in reasoning)
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•
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•
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•
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•
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Coming to a hasty generalization--basing a conclusion on insufficient evidence (see
example on p. 37)
Making an either/or fallacy (see example on p. 37)
Making false analogies (faulty comparisons) (see example on p. 37)
Making a false cause—asserting one event leads to another (see example on p. 38)
Suggesting a slippery slope—asserting one event will cause a “domino effect” (see
example on p. 38)
Name calling/personal attacks “Ad hominem” (see example on p. 38)
Making a bandwagon appeal (see example on p. 38)
Citing a false authority (see example on p. 38)
Drawing a conclusion not based on evidence “Non sequitur” (see example on p. 38)
Introducing a red herring—an unrelated topic meant to side-track/distract readers (see
example on p. 38)
Begging the question (circular reasoning) (see example on p. 38)
Using too many emotional appeals (see example on p. 39)
Using biased/slanted language (see example on p. 39)
Practice: Identify the logical fallacies in #’s 1-2 in Exercise 3-9 on p. 39
(hint: there may be more than one fallacy)
Emotional Appeals
Emotional appeals focus
on readers’ values, needs,
and feelings
– Values: hard-work ethic,
patriotism, kindness . . .
– Needs: desire to feel
attractive and liked . . .
– Feelings: sympathy,
compassion, etc. . .
Support this organization to stop
animal cruelty
Use this toothpaste for a beautiful
smile that shines
Ethical Appeals
Ethical appeals focus on your trustworthiness as
a writer.
Tips for creating an ethical appeal:
• Present yourself as an authority on your topic (What
makes you an expert on the topic?)
• Write a well-reasoned argument that avoids fallacies
• Avoid over-using emotional appeals
• Raise and counter objections (i.e. acknowledge the other
side)
• Create goodwill
Journal prompt
Argue a claim about one of these issues:
• Immigration laws
• Climate change/global warming
• Athletic scholarships
• A longer school year for K-12
• Censorship of the Internet
Issue + Claim + Support = Argument
Tips for Reading Arguments Effectively
1. Read once for an initial impression
2. Read the argument several more times;
Identify the claim and support
3. Annotate as you read—record your thoughts
4. Highlight key terms; look up unfamiliar words
Sample Argument Essay
• Read “Why Organic Foods are Worth the
Cost” by Alex Garcia, pp. 179-185
• Answer (pair/share):
– What issue does this student raise?
– What claim does this student make on this issue?
(That is, what is this student’s thesis?)
– What evidence does this student provide to
support her thesis?
– Does this student present a convincing argument?
(That is, do you agree/disagree and why?)
Writing Argumentative Essays
THESIS STATEMENT
Your thesis statement in an argumentative essay must be strong
and to the point. Often persuasive thesis statements include the
words “should,” “ought,” and “must.”
Examples:
•The death penalty should be abolished.
•Cigarette smoking should be banned.
•Teens who are are caught texting while driving ought to have
their licenses revoked.
•Tuition rates must decrease.
Writing Argument Essays
ESSAY STRUCTURE
Introduction
• “Hook” your reader
• Provide background info on the
controversy
• State your thesis
2-4 Body
Paragraphs
• Begin each paragraph with a topic
sentence that directly supports your
thesis
• Include plenty of supporting evidence
(reasons, facts, examples, statistics,
quotes, etc.)
Conclusion
• Summarize your argument
• Discuss plans for action or consequences
Conducting Research
(Part 3: Source-Based Writing and Part 4: Research & Documentation)
• Many assignments in college
require you to locate and
read several sources of
information on a topic and
then use them to support
your ideas in an essay.
Use sources in an essay to support your own ideas
Information gathered through research can help support the
main points you want to make in your essay.
• Important statistics
You can support
• Technical information
your thesis by
• Background information
including these in
your essay
• The opinion/view of an expert or
authority, or an explanation from an
expert/authority
Tips for Finding Appropriate Sources
1. Ask a reference librarian for help
2. Start with general reference sources—like
Wikipedia—and then move to more specific sources
3. Use current sources (nothing more than five years
old; or even more recent, depending on the topic)
4. Sample a variety of sources—websites, journal
articles, newspaper articles, books, etc.
5. Preview articles by reading abstracts and summaries
6. Read selectively—just read the portions of the article
that are relevant to your research
7. Choose reliable, credible, trustworthy sources
8. Look for sources that lead to other sources
9. Take notes!
Library databases
• Library databases are
indexed collections of
magazine, journal and
newspaper articles that
have been checked for
accuracy and reliability
by publishers and then
licensed for distribution
online.
• College libraries
subscribe to a variety of
databases as a service
for students.
Library Databases vs. The Internet
Library Databases
The Internet
Purchased by school libraries; free for
students to use
Free to anyone with Internet access
Content is evaluated for accuracy and
authority
Anyone can publish anything they want to
the web; there are no checks for accuracy
or authority
Information is stable; you can search for
articles published today or 30 years ago.
Websites come and go—information is not
stable
Articles are organized and indexed by
librarians so content can be easily
searched, managed and updated.
No official body oversees the organization,
cataloging, and evaluation of sources.
Offers options to search by subject,
keyword, author, source, etc.
Only searches by matching keywords
entered by the user
Offers options to limit search results
(refine search)
It can be difficult to narrow down results;
often a “grab bag” of information
Use the SCC library to locate sources
You can access the
library from the
SCC homepage
www.salemcc.edu
How to access the library databases at
Salem Community College
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Go to our website www.salemcc.edu and click on “Cettei Memorial Library”
Click on “Subscription Databases—Subject”
– When you are on-campus, you will automatically have free access to these databases
Popular Databases
LexisNexis
ERIC
TOPICsearch
*These databases are a good starting point for your research.
Remember to preview (skim) articles and read selectively.
Only print out articles that you really need.
EBSCO Host
Points of View Database
Evaluating your sources
To determine the usefulness of your sources, ask
yourself the following questions:
• Is the material recent enough? (some topics like
the health care law debate require the most up-to-date
materials)
• Does the author have suitable credentials?
• Is the author expressing a fact, an opinion or
both?
• Is the source reputable? (sources such as The New
York Times, a major newspaper, would be considered
reputable, whereas unrecognized sources like a personal
blog would not be considered reputable)
Take notes on your sources
• Write down title, author, publication
information, and page numbers for all of your
sources (you will need this information for
your works cited page)
• Paraphrase information you may want to cite
in your essay—that is, write notes in your own
words.
Avoiding Plagiarism
• Using someone else’s words or ideas without properly
giving them credit is called plagiarism.
• All sources must be cited!!! That is, you must mention the
source of all information/ideas you learned in your
research. Even if you don’t write those ideas word-forword, you still must credit the source.
• See Chapter 19 of your textbook
and the “Avoiding Plagiarism”
handout in your green course
syllabus for more information.
Caution!
• You want the majority of your essays to be your
own ideas in your words.
• In a short essay, you should only include 2-4
short citations maximum!
• Avoid lengthy quotes!
Writing Parenthetical Text Citations
• Introduce source material in the present tense
– Joan Smith agrees . . .
– Another researcher remarks . . .
– According to the American Academy of Pediatrics . . .
• Paraphrase, directly quote, or summarize the source
material
– Joan Smith agrees that corporal punishment is not a
legitimate form of discipline in schools (104).
– Another researcher remarks, “Corporal punishment
teaches children to solve problems with violence” (Hayes
20).
– According to the American Academy of Pediatrics, all
corporal punishment should be banned in schools
(“Corporal Punishment in Schools”). *Note, this source did not
have a named author or page number.
Writing the Works Cited Page
• In addition to introducing your
source material and providing
parenthetical text citations, MLA
documentation requires that you
also provide a works cited page
at the end of your essay.
• The works cited page is a
alphabetical listing all sources
from which you paraphrased,
summarized, and quoted (it is not
a listing of all the sources you
consulted during your research).
• Consult your textbook and the
Purdue Owl Website for
instructions on how to format
your works cited page.
Resources in
Simon & Schuster’s
Handbook for Writers
• Part 3: Source-based writing
– Ch. 18: Quoting, paraphrasing and
summarizing
– Ch. 19: Avoiding plagiarism
• Part 4: Research and
documentation
– Ch. 21: Starting and planning research
projects
– Ch. 22: Finding published sources
– Ch. 25: MLA documentation
– MLA sample paper on pp. 350-360