Transcript No Slide Title

APPLIED SCIENCES
&
APPLIED RESEARCH
Smno-pdklp-2012
. The Harvard School of Engineering and Applied
Sciences (SEAS) .
SEAS Engineering
and Applied Science
Disciplines for the
21st Century (in the
wheel) and some of
the collaborative
areas amongst them
(on the outside of the
wheel).
Diunduh dari:
http://www.seas.harvard.edu/about-seas/facts-history/seas-today….. 20/9/2012
RISET TERAPAN
"The hardest problems of
pure and applied science
can only be solved by the
open collaboration of the
world-wide scientific
community."
Kenneth G Wilson.
Diunduh dari:
http://www.longeaton.derbyshire.sch.uk/learning/curriculum_areas/sciences/btec_applied_science….. 20/9/2012
. Scope and Importance of Environmental Studies .
Because of environmental
studies has been seen to
be multidisciplinary in
nature so it is considered
to be a subject with great
scope.
Environment age not
limited to issues of
sanitation and health but
it is now concerned with
pollution control,
biodiversity conservation,
waste management and
conservation of natural
resources..
Diunduh dari:
http://brawin.blogspot.com/2011/06/scope-and-importance-of-environmental.html….. 20/9/2012
PENELITIAN:
Adalah kegiatan yang dilakukan menurut kaidah
dan metode ilmiah secara sistematis untuk
memperoleh informasi, data dan keterangan yang
berkaitan dengan pemahaman dan/atau
pengujian suatu cabang ilmu pengetahuan dan
teknologi.
UURI No. 12 tahun 2012: Pendidikan Tinggi
Pasal 1 butir 10.
Diunduh dari:
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RUMPUN IPTEK
Merupakaqn kumpulan sejumlah pohon, cabang dan ranting ilmu
pengetahuan yang disusun secara sistematis
(UURI No 12 tahun 2012: Pasal 10 (1).
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Rumpun IPTEK terdiri atas:
Rumpun Ilmu Agama
Rumpun Ilmu Humaniora
Rumpun Ilmu Sosial
Rumpun Ilmu Alam
Rumpun Ilmu Formal,
Rumpun Ilmu Terapan.
(UURI No 12 tahun 2012: Pasal 10 (2).
. Rumpun Ilmu Terapan..
Rumpun ilmu terapan merupakan rumpun IPTEK yang mengkaji
dan mendalami aplikasi ilmu bagi kehidupan manusia antara lain:
pertanian, arsitektur dan perencanaan, bisnis,
pendidikan, teknik, kehutanan dan lingkungan, keluarga
dan konsumen, kesehatan, olahraga, jurnalistik, media
masa dan komunikasi, hukum, perpustakaan dan
permuseuman, militer, administrasi publ;ik, pekerja
sosial, dan transportasi.
UURI No. 12 tahun 2012. Penjelasan Pasal 10 Ayat 2 Huruf f.
. APPLIED RESEARCH.
Applied research is a form of systematic inquiry involving the practical
application of science. It accesses and uses some part of the research
communities' (the academy's) accumulated theories, knowledge,
methods, and techniques, for a specific, often state-, business-, or
client-driven purpose.
Applied research deals with solving practical problems and generally
employs empirical methodologies. Because applied research resides in
the messy real world, strict research protocols may need to be relaxed.
For example, it may be impossible to use a random sample. Thus,
transparency in the methodology is crucial. Implications for
interpretation of results brought about by relaxing an otherwise strict
canon of methodology should also be considered.
Diunduh dari:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_research….. 16/9/2012
. Three forms of research.
Frascati Manual outlines three forms of research. These are basic
research, applied research and experimental development:
1. Basic research is experimental or theoretical work undertaken
primarily to acquire new knowledge of the underlying
foundation of phenomena and observable facts, without any
particular application or use in view.
2. Applied research is also original investigation undertaken in
order to acquire new knowledge. It is, however, directed
primarily towards a specific practical aim or objective.
3. Experimental development is systematic work, drawing on
existing knowledge gained from research and/or practical
experience, which is directed to producing new materials,
products or devices, to installing new processes, systems and
services, or to improving substantially those already produced
or installed.
.
Diunduh dari: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frascati_Manual….. 16/9/2012
. APPLIED SCIENCE .
Applied science is the application of human knowledge to build or
design useful things.
Examples include testing a theoretical model through the use of
formal science or solving a practical problem through the use of
natural science.
Fields of engineering are closely related to applied sciences.
Applied science is important for technology development. Its use
in industrial settings is usually referred to as research and
development (R&D).
Applied science differs from fundamental science, which seeks to
describe the most basic objects and forces, having less emphasis
on practical applications. Applied science can be like biological
science and physical science.
Diunduh dari: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_science ….. 16/9/2012
. APPLIED RESEARCH .
Applied research refers to scientific study and
research that seeks to solve practical problems.
Applied research is used to find solutions to
everyday problems, cure illness, and develop
innovative technologies.
Psychologists working in human factors or
industrial/organizational fields often do this type
of research.
Diunduh dari: http://psychology.about.com/od/aindex/g/appres.htm ….. 16/9/2012
. WHAT IS APPLIED RESEARCH?.
Applied research is designed to solve practical problems of the
modern world, rather than to aqcquire knowledge for knowledge's
sake. One might say that the goal of the applied scientist is to
improve the human condition .
Misalnya, riset-terapan mengkaji cara-cara untuk:
1. Memperbaiki produktivitas pertanian
2. Memperlakukan atau merawat penyakit khusus
3. Memperbaikio efisiensi energi di rumah, kantor atau mode
transportasi
Some scientists feel that the time has come for a shift in emphasis
away from purely basic research and toward applied science. This
trend, they feel, is necessitated by the problems resulting from
global overpopulation, pollution, and the overuse of the earth's
natural resources..
Diunduh dari: http://www.lbl.gov/Education/ELSI/research-main.html ….. 16/9/2012
. APPLIED RESEARCH .
Neuman (2000) defines applied research as
"research that attempts to solve a concrete
problem or address a specific policy question
and that has a direct, practical application“.
Beberapa contoh riset terapan:
Action research, Pendugaan dampak sosial,
dan Riset Evaluasi.
Diunduh dari:
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RISET TERAPAN
• Menjawab pertanyaan-pertanyaan praktis,
spesifik lokasi-waktu
• Dapat bersifat eksploratori atau deskriptif
• Melibatkan pengukuran yang akurat dan
mendeskripsikan hubungan antar peubahpeubah dari fenomena yang dipelajari
RISET TERAPAN
• Dapat dilakukan oleh institusi akademik atau
institusi industri-bisnis
• Penelitian diarahkan “untuk menemukan
pengetahuan ilmiah baru yang mempunyai
tujuan komersial khusus dalam konteks
produk, proses atau layanan-jasa”.
RISET TERAPAN
• Contoh-contoh pertanyaam penelitian terapan:
– Bagaimana tanaman padi di Indonesia dapat
dilindungi dari gangguan hama wereng?
– Vaksin apa yang paling efektif dan efisien dalam
melawan influenza?
– Bagaimana kebun apel di Batu dapat dilindungi
dari dampak perubahan iklim global?
.EVALUATION RESEARCH.
Evaluasi merupakan bidang-metodologi yang
berhubungan erat dengan riset-riset sosial , tetapi masih
dapat dibedakan.
Evaluation utilizes many of the same methodologies
used in traditional social research, but because
evaluation takes place within a political and
organizational context, it requires group skills,
management ability, political dexterity, sensitivity to
multiple stakeholders and other skills that social
research in general does not rely on as much.
Diunduh dari: http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/intreval.php ….. 16/9/2012
. Definitions of Evaluation.
Definisi yang paling sering digunakan :
Evaluasi = pendugaan sistematis terhadap kebaikan
atau keburukan suatyu obyek
This definition is hardly perfect. There are many types of
evaluations that do not necessarily result in an assessment of
worth or merit -- descriptive studies, implementation analyses, and
formative evaluations, to name a few.
Better perhaps is a definition that emphasizes the informationprocessing and feedback functions of evaluation:
Evaluation = akuisisi dan assessment informasi untuk
memberikan umpan balik yang manfaat tentang obyekobyek tertentu.
. The Goals of Evaluation.
The generic goal of most evaluations is to provide "useful
feedback" to a variety of audiences including sponsors, donors,
client-groups, administrators, staff, and other relevant
constituencies.
Most often, feedback is perceived as "useful" if it aids in decisionmaking. But the relationship between an evaluation and its impact
is not a simple one -- studies that seem critical sometimes fail to
influence short-term decisions, and studies that initially seem to
have no influence can have a delayed impact when more congenial
conditions arise.
Despite this, there is broad consensus that the major goal of
evaluation should be to influence decision-making or policy
formulation through the provision of empirically-driven feedback.
. Evaluation Strategies.
Four major groups of evaluation strategies are :
Scientific-experimental models are probably the most
historically dominant evaluation strategies.
Taking their values and methods from the sciences -- especially
the social sciences -- they prioritize on the desirability of
impartiality, accuracy, objectivity and the validity of the information
generated.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Model-model yang termasuk dalam “scientific-experimental” :
Experimental dan quasi-experimental designs;
Objectives-based research that comes from education;
Econometrically-oriented perspectives including costeffectiveness and cost-benefit analysis; and
The theory-driven evaluation.
. Evaluation Strategies.
The management-oriented systems models.
Two of the most common of these are PERT, the Program
Evaluation and Review Technique, and CPM, the Critical Path
Method.
Two management-oriented systems models were originated by
evaluators:
1. Model UTOS : where U stands for Units, T for Treatments, O for
Observing Observations and S for Settings; and
2. the CIPP model where the C stands for Context, the I for Input,
the first P for Process and the second P for Product.
These management-oriented systems models emphasize
comprehensiveness in evaluation, placing evaluation within a
larger framework of organizational activities.
Diunduh dari:
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. Evaluation Strategies.
The qualitative/anthropological models.
They emphasize the importance of observation, the need to retain
the phenomenological quality of the evaluation context, and the
value of subjective human interpretation in the evaluation process.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Included in this category are :
the approaches known in evaluation as naturalistic or 'Fourth
Generation' evaluation;
the various qualitative schools;
critical theory and art criticism approaches; and,
the 'grounded theory' approach.
Diunduh dari:
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. Evaluation Strategies.
The participant-oriented models.
As the term suggests, they emphasize the central importance of
the evaluation participants, especially clients and users of the
program or technology.
Client-centered and stakeholder approaches are examples of
participant-oriented models, as are consumer-oriented evaluation
systems.
Diunduh dari:
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. Types of Evaluation.
Formative evaluation types:
1. Needs assessment determines who needs the program, how great
the need is, and what might work to meet the need
2. Evaluability assessment determines whether an evaluation is
feasible and how stakeholders can help shape its usefulness
3. Structured conceptualization helps stakeholders define the
program or technology, the target population, and the possible
outcomes
4. Implementation evaluation monitors the fidelity of the program or
technology delivery
5. Process evaluation investigates the process of delivering the
program or technology, including alternative delivery procedures
Diunduh dari:
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. Types of Evaluation.
Summative evaluation :
1. Outcome evaluations investigate whether the program or
technology caused demonstrable effects on specifically defined
target outcomes
2. Impact evaluation is broader and assesses the overall or net
effects -- intended or unintended -- of the program or technology as
a whole
3. Cost-effectiveness and cost-benefit analysis address questions
of efficiency by standardizing outcomes in terms of their dollar costs
and values
4. Secondary analysis reexamines existing data to address new
questions or use methods not previously employed
5. Meta-analysis integrates the outcome estimates from multiple
studies to arrive at an overall or summary judgement on an
evaluation question .
. Evaluation Questions and Methods.
In FORMATIVE RESEARCH the major questions and
methodologies are:
What is the definition and scope of the problem or issue, or what's
the question?
1. Formulating and conceptualizing methods might be used including
brainstorming, focus groups, nominal group techniques, Delphi
methods, brainwriting, stakeholder analysis, synectics, lateral
thinking, input-output analysis, and concept mapping.
Where is the problem and how big or serious is it?
1. The most common method used here is "needs assessment" which
can include: analysis of existing data sources, and the use of
sample surveys, interviews of constituent populations, qualitative
research, expert testimony, and focus groups.
Diunduh dari:
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. Evaluation Questions and Methods.
In FORMATIVE RESEARCH the major questions and
methodologies are:
How should the program or technology be delivered to address the
problem?
1. Some of the methods already listed apply here, as do detailing
methodologies like simulation techniques, or multivariate methods
like multiattribute utility theory or exploratory causal modeling;
decision-making methods; and project planning and implementation
methods like flow charting, PERT/CPM, and project scheduling.
How well is the program or technology delivered?
1. Qualitative and quantitative monitoring techniques, the use of
management information systems, and implementation assessment
would be appropriate methodologies here.
Diunduh dari: . ….. 16/9/2012
The questions and methods under
SUMMATIVE EVALUATION :
What type of evaluation is feasible?
1. Evaluability assessment can be used here, as well as standard
approaches for selecting an appropriate evaluation design.
What was the effectiveness of the program or technology?
1. One would choose from observational and correlational methods for
demonstrating whether desired effects occurred, and quasi-experimental and
experimental designs for determining whether observed effects can reasonably be
attributed to the intervention and not to other sources.
What is the net impact of the program?
1. Econometric methods for assessing cost effectiveness and
cost/benefits would apply here, along with qualitative methods that
enable us to summarize the full range of intended and unintended
impacts.
Diunduh dari:
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. The Planning-Evaluation Cycle.
The planning process could
involve any or all of these
stages:
1. the formulation of the
problem, issue, or concern;
2. the broad conceptualization
of the major alternatives
that might be considered;
3. the detailing of these
alternatives and their
potential implications;
4. the evaluation of the
alternatives and the
selection of the best one;
and
5. the implementation of the
selected alternative..
Diunduh dari:
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. External Validity – Evaluation Research.
External validity is related to
generalizing.
Validity refers to the
approximate truth of
propositions, inferences, or
conclusions.
External validity refers to the
approximate truth of
conclusions the involve
generalizations.
External validity is the degree to
which the conclusions in your
study would hold for other
persons in other places and at
other times.
Diunduh dari:
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. Improving External Validity.
How can we improve external validity?
1. The sampling model, suggests that you do a good job of drawing a sample
from a population. For instance, you should use random selection, if
possible, rather than a nonrandom procedure. And, once selected, you
should try to assure that the respondents participate in your study and that
you keep your dropout rates low.
2. Use the theory of proximal similarity more effectively. How? Perhaps you
could do a better job of describing the ways your contexts and others differ,
providing lots of data about the degree of similarity between various groups
of people, places, and even times. You might even be able to map out the
degree of proximal similarity among various contexts with a methodology
like concept mapping.
Perhaps the best approach to criticisms of generalizations is simply to show
them that they're wrong -- do your study in a variety of places, with different
people and at different times. The external validity (ability to generalize) will be
stronger the more you replicate your study.
Diunduh dari:
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. THE PROXIMAL SIMILARITY MODEL .
.
'Proximal' means 'nearby' and
'similarity' means 'similarity'.
The term proximal similarity was
suggested by Donald T. Campbell
as an appropriate relabeling of the
term external validity.
Under this model, we begin by
thinking about different
generalizability contexts and
developing a theory about which
contexts are more like our study
and which are less so.
For instance, we might imagine
several settings that have people
who are more similar to the people
in our study or people who are
less similar..
Diunduh dari:
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. Sampling Model. .
In the sampling model, you start by identifying the population you
would like to generalize to.
Then, you draw a fair sample from that population and conduct
your research with the sample.
Finally, because the sample is representative of the population,
you can automatically generalize your results back to the
population.
There are several problems with this approach.
1. Perhaps you don't know at the time of your study who you
might ultimately like to generalize to.
2. You may not be easily able to draw a fair or representative
sample.
3. It's impossible to sample across all times that you might like to
generalize to (like next year).
Diunduh dari: http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/external.php ….. 16/9/2012
. Measurement.
Measurement is the process observing and recording the observations that are
collected as part of a research effort.
1.
2.
You have to understand the fundamental ideas involved in measuring. Here we
consider two of major measurement concepts. Levels of Measurement, explain the
meaning of the four major levels of measurement: nominal, ordinal, interval and
ratio. Then we move on to the reliability of measurement, including consideration of
true score theory and a variety of reliability estimators.
You have to understand the different types of measures that you might use in social
research.
We consider four broad categories of measurements:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Survey research includes the design and implementation of interviews and
questionnaires.
Scaling involves consideration of the major methods of developing and
implementing a scale.
Qualitative research provides an overview of the broad range of non-numerical
measurement approaches.
Unobtrusive measures presents a variety of measurement methods that don't intrude
on or interfere with the context of the research.
Diunduh dari:
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. Survey Research.
Survey research is one of the most important areas of
measurement in applied social research.
The broad area of survey research encompasses any
measurement procedures that involve asking questions of
respondents.
A "survey" can be anything form a short paper-and-pencil
feedback form to an intensive one-on-one in-depth interview.
Types of surveys are divided into two broad areas:
Questionnaires and Interviews.
Diunduh dari:
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Interviews
Interviews are a far more personal form of research than
questionnaires.
In the personal interview, the interviewer works directly with the
respondent. Unlike with mail surveys, the interviewer has the
opportunity to probe or ask follow-up questions.
Interviews are generally easier for the respondent, especially if
what is sought is opinions or impressions.
Interviews can be very time consuming and they are resource
intensive.
The interviewer is considered a part of the measurement
instrument and interviewers have to be well trained in how to
respond to any contingency.
Diunduh dari:
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.IMPACT ASSESSMENT RESEARCH.
The Impact Assessment Research Centre (IARC) at the University
of Manchester aims to promote knowledge and practice of Impact
Assessment.
The increasing interest in evidence-based policy-making has
raised new challenges and debates among impact assessment
researchers and practitioners.
By encouraging an integrated approach to impact assessment, the
IARC seeks to strengthen the linkages between different impact
assessment methodologies and practices.
The work of IARC is multidisciplinary, and recognises that
sustainable development can only be achieved on the basis of a
balanced, context and time specific assessment of the economic,
social and environmental impacts of policies, programmes and
projects.
Diunduh dari: http://www.sed.manchester.ac.uk/research/iarc/ ….. 16/9/2012
The Impact Assessment Research Centre (IARC)
The Impact Assessment Research Centre (IARC) in IDPM
specialises in the integrated assessment of the economic,
social and environmental impacts on sustainable
development of national, regional and international policies.
Its current research programme includes sustainability
impact assessment (SIA) of global and regional trade
agreements, the effectiveness of national sustainable
development strategies (NSDS), and regulatory impact
assessment (RIA) of draft legislation and other policy
measures..
Diunduh dari: pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNADN201.pdf ….. 16/9/2012
. COMMON PROBLEMS IN IMPACT ASSESSMENT
RESEARCH.
Introduction
Doing an impact assessment of a private sector development (PSD) program is
inherently challenging. Doing it the “right” way—such that it satisfies minimally
acceptable methodological standards—is more challenging yet.
During the course of planning and implementing an impact assessment, it is not
uncommon for researchers to confront any number of problems that have
serious implications for impact assessment methodology and, consequently,
the validity of its findings.
The impact assessment problems discussed in this paper include: timing,
spillover effects, selection bias, capability of local research partners, and
unanticipated external factors, such as climatic disasters.
Diunduh dari: pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNADN201.pdf ….. 16/9/2012
. COMMON PROBLEMS IN IMPACT ASSESSMENT
RESEARCH.
Timing
The timing of the impact assessment may seriously affect the validity of its findings.
Ideally, a set aside for an impact assessment is incorporated into the original program
budget that includes funding for a technical expert to set up the impact assessment early
in the program cycle. More commonly, however, the decision to do an impact
assessment occurs after the program is already underway. This can cause a number of
problems. To begin with, the baseline may come too late to capture impacts that have
already occurred, resulting in an understatement of actual program impacts. The longer
the time lag between program launch and the baseline research, the greater the
probability that the impact assessment fails to capture certain program impacts.
Even more striking examples of the problems resulting from delaying the start of
research are provided by cases in which the impact assessment is done either near the
end or after the end of a program. In these cases, there is no possibility of doing a
baseline study, or, indeed, of getting any longitudinal data. Everything depends on a onetime set of research activities and often entails a heavy reliance on retrospective
questions.
Diunduh dari: pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNADN201.pdf ….. 16/9/2012
. COMMON PROBLEMS IN IMPACT ASSESSMENT
RESEARCH.
Spillover Effects
A second common problem occurs when program benefits spill
over to non-program participants.
An example is the recently completed impact assessment of the
Cluster Access to Business Services (CABS) program in
Azerbaijan, which seeks to “improve profitability for clusters of
rural poor and women micro-entrepreneurs by increasing access
to a network of trained veterinary and production advice service
providers . . . .”
The baseline study, conducted a year after program launch,
showed significantly higher net profits for the treatment group
veterinarians, but this difference had disappeared by the time the
follow up study took place.
Diunduh dari: pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNADN201.pdf ….. 16/9/2012
. COMMON PROBLEMS IN IMPACT ASSESSMENT
RESEARCH.
Selection Bias
One of the greatest challenges in doing a high quality impact
assessment is identifying statistically valid treatment and
control groups.
The best method of group selection is the experimental method in
which membership in the treatment and control groups is
determined via random assignment.
Where experimental methods are not feasible, quasi-experimental
methods are a second-best alternative.
Diunduh dari: pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNADN201.pdf ….. 16/9/2012
. COMMON PROBLEMS IN IMPACT ASSESSMENT
RESEARCH.
Ensuring Good Performance by the Local Research
Partner
Although it is not often emphasized, selecting the local research
partner is one of the most important steps in the impact
assessment process. Most developing countries have a variety of
consulting firms, marketing research firms, research institutes, or
universities with experience in local field research.
The capabilities of these local researchers, however, can vary
considerably. A bad selection can result in higher costs; missed
deadlines; greater frustration; poorer quality of work; strained
relations with the program, program partners, and donors;
questionable results; and, in extreme cases, failure of the
research.
Diunduh dari: pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNADN201.pdf ….. 16/9/2012
. COMMON PROBLEMS IN IMPACT ASSESSMENT
RESEARCH.
Unanticipated External Events
Even if an impact assessment is well planned, the methodology is
sound, and the local research partner is competent, it may
encounter outside-project factors that threaten or even wipe out
the entire study.
One example is the impact assessment undertaken of the craft exporter project
in Guatemala. In this case, the baseline research was successfully completed in
2003. The baseline survey included a sample of 1,529 producers of textile,
ceramic, wood and leather goods of which 314 were affiliated with the project.
The analysis in 2006, however, was based on 56 affiliated producers and 105
non-affiliated textile producers who did not present the same demographic
profile as the original textile producers..
Diunduh dari: pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNADN201.pdf ….. 16/9/2012
. Social Impact Assessment tools and methods .
Analytical tools
1.
STAKEHOLDER ANALYSIS is an entry point to SIA and participatory work. It
addresses strategic questions, e.g. who are the key stakeholders? what are their
interests in the project or policy? what are the power differentials between them?
what relative influence do they have on the operation? This information helps to
identify institutions and relations which, if ignored, can have negative influence on
proposals or, if considered, can be built upon to strengthen them.
2. GENDER ANALYSIS focuses on understanding and documenting the differences
in gender roles, activities, needs and opportunities in a given context. It highlights
the different roles and behaviour of men and women. These attributes vary across
cultures, class, ethnicity, income, education, and time; and so gender analysis does
not treat women as a homogeneous group.
3. SECONDARY DATA REVIEW of information from previously conducted work is an
inexpensive, easy way to narrow the focus of a social assessment, to identify
experts and institutions that are familiar with the development context, and to
establish a relevant framework and key social variables in advance.
Diunduh dari: http://www.unep.ch/etu/publications/EIA_2ed/EIA_E_top13_hd1.PDF ….. 16/9/2012
. Social Impact Assessment tools and methods .
Community-based methods
1. Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) covers a family of participatory
approaches and methods, which emphasises local knowledge and action. It
uses to group animation and exercises to facilitate stakeholders to share
information and make their own appraisals and plans. Originally developed
for use in rural areas, PRA has been employed successfully in a variety of
settings to enable local people to work together to plan communityappropriate developments.
2. SARAR is an acronym of five attributes -- self-esteem, associative strength,
resourcefulness, action planning and responsibility for follow-through -that are important for achieving a participatory approach to development.
SARAR is a philosophy of adult education and empowerment, which seeks
to optimise people's ability to self-organize, take initiatives, and shoulder
responsibilities. It is best classed as an experiential methodology, which
involves setting aside hierarchical differences, team building through
training, and learning from local experience rather than from external
experts..
Diunduh dari: http://www.unep.ch/etu/publications/EIA_2ed/EIA_E_top13_hd1.PDF ….. 16/9/2012
. Social Impact Assessment tools and methods .
Consultation methods
Beneficiary Assessment (BA) is a systematic investigation of the
perceptions of a sample of beneficiaries and other stakeholders to
ensure that their concerns are heard and incorporated into project
and policy formulation.
The purposes are to (a) undertake systematic listening, which
"gives voice" to poor and other hard-to-reach beneficiaries,
highlighting constraints to beneficiary participation, and (b) obtain
feedback on interventions.
Diunduh dari: http://www.unep.ch/etu/publications/EIA_2ed/EIA_E_top13_hd1.PDF ….. 16/9/2012
. Social Impact Assessment tools and methods .
Observation and interview tools
1. Participant Observation is a field technique used by anthropologists and sociologists
to collect qualitative data and to develop in-depth understanding of peoples'
motivations and attitudes. It is based on looking, listening, asking questions and
keeping detailed field notes. Observation and analysis are supplemented by desk
reviews of secondary sources, and hypotheses about local reality are checked with
key local informants.
2. Semi-structured Interviews are a low-cost, rapid method for gathering information
from individuals or small groups. Interviews are partially structured by a written
guide to ensure that they are focused on the issue at hand, but stay conversational
enough to allow participants to introduce and discuss aspects that they consider to
be relevant.
3. Focus Group Meetings are a rapid way to collect comparative data from a variety of
stakeholders. They are brief meetings -- usually one to two hours -- with many
potential uses, e.g. to address a particular concern; to build community consensus
about implementation plans; to cross-check information with a large number of
people; or to obtain reactions to hypothetical or intended actions.
4. Village Meetings allow local people to describe problems and outline their priorities
and aspirations. They can be used to initiate collaborative planning, and to
periodically share and verify information gathered from small groups or individuals
by other means.
. Social Impact Assessment tools and methods .
Participatory methods
1.
2.
3.
Role Playing helps people to be creative, open their perspectives, understand the
choices that another person might face, and make choices free from their usual
responsibilities. This exercise can stimulate discussion, improve communication,
and promote collaboration at both community and agency levels.
Wealth Ranking (also known as well-being ranking or vulnerability analysis) is a
visual technique to engage local people in the rapid data collection and analysis of
social stratification in a community (regardless of language and literacy barriers). It
focuses on the factors which constitute wealth, such as ownership of or right to use
productive assets, their relationship to locally powerful people, labour and
indebtedness, and so on.
Access to Resources is a tool to collect information and raise awareness of how
access to resources varies according to gender, age, marital status, parentage, and
so on. This information can make all the difference to the success or failure of a
proposal; for example, if health clinics require users to pay cash fees, and women
are primarily responsible for accompanying sick or pregnant family members to the
clinic, then women must have access to cash.
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. Social Impact Assessment tools and methods .
Participatory methods
1. Analysis of Tasks clarifies the distribution of domestic and
community activities by gender and the degree of role
flexibility that is associated with each task. This is central to
understanding the human resources that are necessary for
running a community.
2. Mapping is an inexpensive tool for gathering both descriptive
and diagnostic information. Mapping exercises are useful for
collecting baseline data on a number of indicators as part of a
beneficiary assessment or rapid appraisals, and can lay the
foundation for community ownership of development planning
by including different groups.
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. Social Impact Assessment tools and methods .
Participatory methods
1. Needs Assessment draws out information about people's needs and
requirements in their daily lives. It raises participants' awareness of
development issues and provides a framework for prioritising actions and
interventions. All sectors can benefit from participating in a needs
assessment, as can trainers, project staff and field workers.
2. Pocket Charts are investigative tools, which use pictures as stimulus to
encourage people to assess and analyse a given situation. Made of cloth,
paper or cardboard, pockets are arranged into rows and columns, which are
captioned by drawings. A "voting" process is used to engage participants in
the technical aspects of development issues, such as water and sanitation
projects.
3. Tree Diagrams are multi-purpose, visual tools for narrowing and prioritising
problems, objectives or decisions. Information is organized into a tree-like
diagram. The main issue is represented by the trunk, and the relevant
factors, influences and outcomes are shown as roots and branches of the
tree. .
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. Social Impact Assessment tools and methods .
Workshop-based methods
1. Objectives-Oriented Project Planning is a method that
encourages participatory planning and analysis throughout the
project life cycle. A series of stakeholder workshops are held to
set priorities, and integrate them into planning, implementation
and monitoring. Building commitment and capacity is an
integral part of this process.
2. TeamUP was developed to expand the benefits of objectives-oriented project
planning and to make it more accessible for institution-wide use.
PC/TeamUP is a software package, which automates the basic step-by-step
methodology and guides stakeholders through research, project design,
planning, implementation, and evaluation.
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. WHAT IS IMPACT ASSESSMENT?.
In its broadest sense, impact assessment is the process of
identifying the anticipated or actual impacts of a development
intervention, on those social, economic and environmental factors
which the intervention is designed to affect or may inadvertently
affect. It may take place before approval of an intervention (ex
ante), after completion (ex post), or at any stage in between.
Ex ante assessment forecasts potential impacts as part of the
planning, design and approval of an intervention.
Ex post assessment identifies actual impacts during and after
implementation, to enable corrective action to be taken if
necessary, and to provide information for improving the design of
future interventions. .
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. External impact assessment, .
External impact assessment, often involving independent
investigators.
Such assessments produce reports for specific purposes, such as
poverty impact assessment, regulatory impact assessment, social
impact assessment or health impact assessment.
Certain types of ex ante assessment may be part of the approval
process for certain types of intervention, including environmental
impact assessment and economic impact assessment (costbenefit analysis). These may contain their own ex post monitoring
activities.
Separate ex post assessments may be undertaken or
commissioned for any particular intervention or set of
interventions, to provide fuller information than may be available
from routine monitoring and evaluation.
.
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. Impact Assessment methods .
Quantitative statistical methods involving baseline studies,
the precise identification of baseline conditions, definition of
objectives, target setting, rigorous performance evaluation and
outcome measurement.
Such methods can be costly, limited in the types of impacts which
can be accurately measured, and may pose difficulties for
inference of cause and effect.
Some degree of quantification may be necessary in all impact
assessments, in order to evaluate the success of the intervention
and the magnitude of any adverse effects.
.
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. Impact Assessment methods .
QUALITATIVE METHODS suitable for investigating more
complex and/or sensitive types of social impacts, e.g. intrahousehold processes, policy issues and investigation of reasons
for statistical relationships and policy implications.
These methods generally require high levels of skill, and may be
relatively costly.
Some degree of qualitative interpretation may be necessary in all
impact assessments, in order to evaluate the causes of impacts
which have been observed.
.
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. Impact Assessment methods .
PARTICIPATORY APPROACHES suitable for initial definition or
refinement of the actual or potential impacts which are of concern
to stakeholders, questions to be asked, and appropriate
frameworks and indicators to be used.
Such approaches can contribute to all types of assessment, and
are particularly suited to exploratory low budget assessments and
initial investigation of possible reasons for observed statistical
relationships. They offer a means of involving stakeholders in the
research, learning and decision-making processes. These
methodologies also require a certain level of skill, depending on
the issues to be addressed and ways in which they are integrated
with other methods.
Some degree of stakeholder participation is likely to be necessary
in all impact assessments, in order to achieve a good
understanding of stakeholder perceptions of impacts.
.
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. Socio-economic impact assessment studies .
Socio-economic impact assessment studies typically investigate
the impacts of a systems for a future time horizon.
These prospective studies make use of an ex-ante impact
assessment, often based on literature review, simulation work and
expert estimation.
They are often comprehensive in scope but they do not involve, or
only to a limited extent, data from real-life conditions.
The socio-economic impact assessment investigates the impacts of a
technology on society. Ideally a socio-economic impact assessment
provides the decision maker with relevant information in a concise
format. The relevant comparison is between the benefits and costs
between a base case.
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. Scope of the imapcts within socio-economic
impact assessment.
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Applied Research Design: A Practical Approach
Leonard Bickman and Debra J. Rog.
The Conduct of Applied Research.
Planning
Stage I
Definition
Execution
Stage II
Design/plan
Stage III
Implementation
Stage IV
Reporting/
follow-up
Stage I of the research process starts with the researcher’s development of an
understanding of the relevant problem or societal issue. This process involves working with stakeholders to refine and revise study questions to make sure that
the questions can be addressed given the research conditions (e.g., time frame,
resources, and context) and can provide useful information.
After developing potentially researchable questions, the investigator then moves to Stage II—developing the
research design and plan. This phase involves several decisions and assessments,
including selecting a design and proposed data collection strategies.
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Applied Research Design: A Practical Approach
Leonard Bickman and Debra J. Rog.
Applied Research Planning.
Stage II. Research
Design/plan
Stage I. Research Definition
Choose design/data
collection approaches
Understand the problem
Identify questions
Determine trade-offs
Inventory resources
Refine/revise questions
Assess feasibility
To execution
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Applied Research Design: A Practical Approach
Leonard Bickman and Debra J. Rog.
The Research Problem:
Strategies that can be used in gathering the needed information include the following:
1. Review relevant literature (research articles and reports, transcripts of legislative hearings,
program descriptions, administrative reports, agency statistics, media articles, and
policy/position papers by all major interested parties);
2. Gather current information from experts on the issue (all sides and perspectives) and major
interested parties;
3. Conduct information-gathering visits and observations to obtain a real-world sense of the
context and to talk with persons actively involved in the issue;
4. Initiate discussions with the research clients or sponsors (legislative members; foundation,
business, organization, or agency personnel; and so on) to obtain the clearest possible
picture of their concerns; and
5. If it is a program evaluation, informally visit the program and talk with the staff, clients, and
others who may be able to provide information on the program and/or overall research
context.
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Applied Research Design: A Practical Approach
Leonard Bickman and Debra J. Rog.
Developing the Conceptual Framework
Every study, whether explicitly or implicitly, is based on a conceptual framework
or model that specifies the variables of interest and the expected relationships
between them. In some studies, social and behavioral science theory may serve as
the basis for the conceptual framework.
Other studies, such as program and policy evaluations, may be based not on formal
academic theory but on statements of expectations of how policies or programs are
purported to work.
The framework may be relatively straightforward or it may be complex, as in the case of
evaluations of comprehensive community reforms, for example, that are concerned with
multiple effects and have a variety of competing explanations for the effects (e.g., Rog &
Knickman, 2004).
1.
Rog, D. J., & Knickman, J. (2004). Strategies for comprehensive initiatives. In M. Braverman, N. Constantine, &
J. Slater (Eds.), Foundations and evaluations: Contexts and practices for effective philanthropy (pp. 223–235).
San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
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Applied Research Design: A Practical Approach
Leonard Bickman and Debra J. Rog.
Identifying the Research Questions
As noted in the introduction to this Handbook, one of the major differences
between basic research and applied research is that the basic researcher is more
autonomous than the applied researcher.
Basic research, when externally funded, is typically conducted through a relatively
unrestricted grant mechanism; applied research is more frequently funded through
contracts and cooperative agreements.
Even when applied research is funded through grant mechanisms, such as with
foundations, there is usually a “client” or sponsor who specifies (or at least guides) the
research agenda and requests the research results. Most often, studies have multiple
stakeholders: sponsors, interested beneficiaries, and potential users.
The questions to be addressed by an applied study tend to be posed by individuals other
than the researcher, often by nontechnical persons in non-technical language.
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Applied Research Design: A Practical Approach
Leonard Bickman and Debra J. Rog.
. Clarifying
the Research Questions
In discussing the research agenda with clients, the researcher will usually identify several types of questions.
For example, in a program evaluation, researchers are frequently asked to produce
comprehensive information on both the implementation (“what actually is taking or took
place”) and the effects (“what caused what”) of an intervention.
When the research agendas are broad such as those in the example, they pose
significant challenges for planning in terms of allocating data collection resources
among the various study objectives.
It is helpful to continue to work with the sponsors to further refine the questions to both
more realistically plan the scope of the research and to also ensure that they are specific
enough to be answered in a meaningful way and one that is agreed on by the clients.
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Applied Research Design: A Practical Approach
Leonard Bickman and Debra J. Rog.
Negotiating the Scope of a Study
Communication between the researcher and stakeholders (the sponsor and all
other interested parties) is important in all stages of the research process. To foster
maximum and accurate utilization of results, it is recommended that the researcher
regularly interact with the research clients—from the initial discussions of the
“problem” to recommendations and follow-up.
In the planning phase, we suggest several specific communication strategies. As soon as
the study is sponsored, the researcher should connect with the client to develop a
common understanding of the research questions, the client’s time frame for study
results, and anticipated uses for the information. The parties can also discuss
preliminary ideas regarding a conceptual model for the study. Even in this initial stage, it
is important for the researcher to begin the discussion of the contents and appearance of
the final report. This is an opportunity for the researcher to explore whether the client
expects only to be provided information on study results or whether the client
anticipates that the researcher will offer recommendations for action. It is also an
opportunity for the researcher to determine whether he or she will be expected to provide
interim findings to the client as the study progresses.
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Applied Research Design: A Practical Approach
Leonard Bickman and Debra J. Rog.
Stage II: The Research Design
The design serves as the architectural blueprint of a
research project, linking design, data collection, and
analysis activities to the research questions and
ensuring that the complete research agenda will be
addressed.
A research study’s credibility, usefulness, and feasibility
rest with the design that is implemented.
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Applied Research Design: A Practical Approach
Leonard Bickman and Debra J. Rog.
Credibility refers to the validity of a study and whether the design is sufficiently rigorous
to provide support for definitive conclusions and desired recommendations.
Credibility is also, in part, determined by who is making the judgment.
To some sponsors, a credible project need only use a pre-post design. Others may
require a randomized experimental design to consider the findings credible.
Credibility is also determined by the research question.
A representative sample will make a descriptive study more credible than a sample of
convenience or one with known biases. In contrast, representativeness is not as
important in a study designed to determine the causal link between a program and
outcomes.
The planner needs to be sure that the design matches the types of information needed.
For example, under most circumstances, the simple pre-post design should not be used
if the purpose of the study is to draw causal conclusions.
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Applied Research Design: A Practical Approach
Leonard Bickman and Debra J. Rog.
Usefulness refers to whether the design is appropriately
targeted to answer the specific questions of interest.
A sound study is of little use if it provides definitive answers
to the wrong questions.
Feasibility refers to whether the research design can be
executed, given the requisite time and other resource
constraints.
All three factors—credibility, usefulness, and feasibility—
must be considered to conduct high-quality applied research.
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Applied Research Design: A Practical Approach
Leonard Bickman and Debra J. Rog.
Design Dimensions
Maximizing Validity
Four types of validity are typically considered in the design of applied research
(Bickman, 1989; Shadish, Cook, & Campbell, 2002).
1. Internal validity: the extent to which causal conclusions can be drawn or the degree of certainty
that “A” caused “B,” where A is the independent variable (or program) and B is the dependent
variable (or outcome).
2. External validity: the extent to which it is possible to generalize from the data and context of the
research study to other populations, times, and settings (especially those specified in the
statement of the original problem/issue).
3. Construct validity: the extent to which the constructs in the conceptual framework are
successfully operationalized (e.g., measured or implemented) in the research study. For
example, does the program as actually implemented accurately represent the program concept
and do the outcome measures accurately represent the outcome? Programs change over time,
especially if fidelity to the program model or theory is not monitored.
4. Statistical conclusion validity: the extent to which the study has used appropriate sample size,
measures, and statistical methods to enable it to detect the effects if they are present. This is
also related to the statistical power.
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Applied Research Design: A Practical Approach
Leonard Bickman and Debra J. Rog.
Choosing a Design
There are three main categories of applied research designs:
descriptive, experimental, and quasi-experimental.
In our experience, developing an applied research design rarely
allows for implementing a design straight from a textbook; rather,
the process more typically involves the development of a hybrid,
reflecting combinations of designs and other features that can
respond to multiple study questions, resource limitations,
dynamics in the research context, and other constraints of the
research situation (e.g., time deadlines).
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Applied Research Design: A Practical Approach
Leonard Bickman and Debra J. Rog.
Descriptive Research Designs
Description and Purpose.
The overall purpose of descriptive research is to provide a “picture” of a phenomenon as it naturally
occurs, as opposed to studying the effects of the phenomenon or intervention. Descriptive research
can be designed to answer questions of a univariate, normative, or correlative nature—that is,
describing only one variable, comparing the variable to a particular standard, or summarizing the
relationship between two or more variables.
Key Features.
Because the category of descriptive research is broad and encompasses several different types of
designs, one of the easiest ways to distinguish this class of research from others is to identify what
it is not: It is not designed to provide information on cause-effect relationships.
Variations.
There are only a few features of descriptive research that vary. These are the representativeness of
the study data sources (e.g., the subjects/entities)—that is, the manner in which the sources are
selected (e.g., universe, random sample, stratified sample, nonprobability sample); the time frame of
measurement—that is, whether the study is a one-shot, cross-sectional study, or a longitudinal
study; whether the study involves some basis for comparison (e.g., with a standard, another group
or population, data from a previous time period); and whether the design is focused on a simple
descriptive question, on a normative question, or on a correlative question.
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Applied Research Design: A Practical Approach
Leonard Bickman and Debra J. Rog.
Descriptive Research Designs
When to Use.
A descriptive approach is appropriate when the researcher is attempting to answer “what is,” or
“what was,” or “how much” questions.
Strengths.
Exploratory descriptive studies can be low cost, relatively easy to implement, and able to yield
results in a fairly short period of time. Some efforts, however, such as those involving major
surveys, may sometimes require extensive resources and intensive measurement efforts. The costs
depend on factors such as the size of the sample, the nature of the data sources, and the complexity
of the data collection methods employed.
Limitations.
Descriptive research is not intended to answer questions of a causal nature. Major problems can
arise when the results from descriptive studies are inappropriately used to make causal
inferences—a temptation for consumers of correlational data.
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Applied Research Design: A Practical Approach
Leonard Bickman and Debra J. Rog.
Experimental Research Designs
Description and Purpose.
The primary purpose in conducting an experimental study is to test the existence of a causal
relationship between two or more variables. In an experimental study, one variable, the independent
variable, is systematically varied or manipulated so that its effects on another variable, the
dependent variable, can be measured. In applied research, such as in program evaluation, the
“independent variable” is typically a program or intervention (e.g., a drug education program) and
the “dependent variables” are the desired outcomes or effects of the program on its participants
(e.g., drug use, attitudes toward drug use).
Key Features.
The distinguishing characteristic of an experimental study is the random assignment of individuals
or entities to the levels or conditions of the study. Random assignment is used to control most
biases at the time of assignment and to help ensure that only one variable—the independent
(experimental) variable—differs between conditions. With well-implemented random assignment, all
individuals have an equal likelihood of being assigned either to the treatment group or to the control
group. If the total number of individuals or entities assigned to the treatment and control groups is
sufficiently large, then any differences between the groups should be small and due to chance.
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Applied Research Design: A Practical Approach
Leonard Bickman and Debra J. Rog.
Experimental Research Designs
Variations.
The most basic experimental study is called a post-only design, in which individuals are randomly
assigned either to a treatment group or to a control group, and the measurement of the effects of
the treatment is conducted at a given period following the administration of the treatment. There are
several variations to this simple experimental design that can respond to specific information needs
as well as provide control over possible confounds or influences that may exist. Among the features
that can be varied are the number and scheduling of posttest measurement or observation periods,
whether a preobservation is conducted, and the number of treatment and control groups used. The
post-only design is rarely used because faulty random assignment may result in the control and
treatment groups not being equivalent at the start of the study. Few researchers are that (over)
confident in the implementation of a field randomized design to take the chance that the results
could be interpreted as being caused by faulty implementation of the design.
When to Use.
An experimental study is the most appropriate approach to study cause-effect relationships. There
are certain situations that are especially conductive to randomized experiments when random
assignment is expected (i.e., certain scarce resources may already be provided on a “lottery” or
random basis), when demand outstrips supply for an intervention, and when there are multiple entry
groups over a period of time.
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Applied Research Design: A Practical Approach
Leonard Bickman and Debra J. Rog.
Experimental Research Designs
Strengths.
The overwhelming strength of a randomized experiment is its control over threats to
internal validity—that is, its ability to rule out potential alternative explanations for
apparent treatment or program effects. This strength applies to both the variables that
are measured and, more important, the variables that are not measured and, thus, are
unknown to the researcher but continue to be controlled by the design.
Limitations.
Randomized experiments can be difficult to implement with integrity, particularly in
settings where the individuals responsible for random assignment procedures lack
research training or understanding of the importance of maintaining compliance with the
research protocol.
In addition, random assignment does not control for all biases such as participant
preference for one condition over the other or local history where some external event
occurs for one group but not for the other.
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