PSY 620P January 27, 2015

      Fraley, R. C., Roisman, G. I., & Haltigan, J. D. (2013). The legacy of early experiences in development: Formalizing alternative models of how early experiences are carried forward over time. Dev Psychol, 49(1), 109-126.

Sunni1 Adolph, K. E., S. R. Robinson, et al. (2008). " What is the shape of developmental change ?" Psychological Review 115(3): 527-543. Mike1 Brody, G. H., Chen, Y-F., Murry, V. M., Ge, X., Simons, R. L., Gibbons, F. X., Gerrard, M., & Cutrona, C. E. (2006). Perceived discrimination and the adjustment of African American youths: A five-year longitudinal analysis with contextual moderation effects. Child Development, 77, 1170-1189.

BreAnne1 Oller DK, Niyogi P, Gray S, Richards JA, Gilkerson J, Xu D, Yapanel U, Warren SF: Automated vocal

analysis of naturalistic recordings from children with autism, language delay, and typical

development. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 2010, 107:13354-13359.

Carolyn1    Optional: Shaw, D. S., Connell, A., Dishion, T. J., Wilson, M. N., & Gardner, F. (2009). Improvements in maternal depression as a mediator of intervention effects on early childhood behavior problems. Development and Psychopathology, 21, 417-439 .

             

Week 4: February 5th – The biological basis of behavior and development

Champagne, F. A., & Mashoodh, R. (2009). Genes in Context Gene–Environment Interplay and the Origins of Individual Differences in Behavior. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 18(3), 127-131. Cf. Szyf, M. and J. Bick (2012). "DNA Methylation: A Mechanism for Embedding Early Life Experiences in the Genome." Child Development.

Burgaleta, M., Johnson, W., Waber, D. P., Colom, R., & Karama, S. (2014). Cognitive ability changes and dynamics of cortical thickness development in healthy children and adolescents. Neuroimage, 84(0), 810-819. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2013.09.038

Uddin, L. Q., Supekar, K., & Menon, V. (2013). Reconceptualizing functional brain connectivity in autism from a developmental perspective. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 7. doi: 10.3389/fnhum.2013.00458

Chen, E., Cohen, S., & Miller, G. E. (2010). How low socioeconomic status affects 2-year hormonal trajectories in children. Psychological Science, 21, 31-37.

Alternates: Lister, R., Mukamel, E. A., Nery, J. R., Urich, M., Puddifoot, C. A., Johnson, N. D., Lucero, J., Huang, Y., Dwork, A. J., Schultz, M. D., Yu, M., Tonti-Filippini, J., Heyn, H., Hu, S., Wu, J. C., Rao, A., Esteller, M., He, C., Haghighi, F. G., Sejnowski, T. J., Behrens, M. M., & Ecker, J. R. (2013). Global epigenomic reconfiguration during mammalian brain development. Science, 341(6146), 1237905. doi: 10.1126/science.1237905

Shaw, P., Greenstein, D., Lerch, J., Clasen, L., Lenroot, R., Gogtay, N., Evans, A., Rapoport, J., & Giedd, J. (2006). Intellectual ability and cortical development in children and adolescents. Nature, 440, 676-679.

 February 12th – Perceptual Development (cont)  Vogel, M., Monesson, A., & Scott, L. S. (2012). Building biases in infancy: The influence of race on face and voice emotion matching. Developmental Science, 15, 359-372.

  Maurer, D., Mondloch, C. J., & Lewis, T. L. (2007). Sleeper effects. Developmental Science, 10, 40-47.

  Papageorgiou, K. A., Smith, T. J., Wu, R., Johnson, M. H., Kirkham, N. Z., & Ronald, A. (2014). Individual Differences in Infant Fixation Duration Relate to Attention and Behavioral Control in Childhood. Psychological Science. doi: 10.1177/0956797614531295   Jones, W., & Klin, A. (2013). Attention to eyes is present but in decline in 2-6-month-old infants later diagnosed with autism. Nature, 504(7480), 427-431. doi: 10.1038/nature12715

▪ State Space Grid Analysis ▪ 2-dimensional grids reflecting co-occurrence of 2 or more variables

Messinger

 Design  Developmental Designs  Internal and External Validity of a Study ▪ Threats to Internal Validity  Measurement  Reliability and Validity of Measures  Instrument Construction Stages  Dealing with missing data  Ethics in Developmental Studies  Children as vulnerable population  Assent  Analysis  Visualizing your data  Hypothesis Testing  Approaches to Analyzing Change over Time

    Replicability Access to samples Replicable (objective?) measurement Addressing the crisis…

 Strange Situation examples

Mattson, et al.,PLOS One, 2013

 Between subject  A treatment (independent variable) is assigned randomly   creating treatment and control groups Within-subject  All infants get treatment and control  Examples ▪ Rating study, Face-to-face still-face .16

Estimated Marginal Means of MEASURE_1 .14

.12

.10

.08

.06

.04

.02

1 SMILES 2 3 EXP2 Comparison Exposed Messinger

   Quasi-experimental  differences in naturally occurring groups Observational  Differences in naturally occurring conditions Complementary, not exclusive  Is age (development) studied experimentally or observationally?

Messinger

T indicates children who have just transition from junior high school Alfieri et al., 1996

Belfort et al., 2013

  Quasi-experiment  Between subject exploration of differences in naturally occurring groups ▪ Drug exposure, breast-feeding, and attachment groups Observational  Differences in naturally occurring conditions ▪ Gazing at mother versus gazing away 0.3

0.2

0.1

0.0

0.8

Figure 2b.

Solo Open Mouth Smiling by Gazing at Mother 0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4

Messinger

   Experimental and all observational approaches measures variables Variable - a measurable component of behavior or physiological functioning that can take on different values Not all aspects of behavior or physiology  specific features of interest Messinger

    Intensive description in regular language  Not measuring variables ▪ E.g., baby biography, one infant described over time Pro: Insight into individual and developmental process  Emerged with romantic emphasis on individual Con: Not generalizable Complementary, not exclusive Messinger

Longitudinal vs. cross-sectional designs

   Same infants over time Pro: Answers ‘How do individuals change in time?’ Con: Takes a long time  Attrition 120 Typical Trajectory: Cognitive Scores Decline 80 70 60 110 100 90 50 1 Year M = 93.5

n = 200 2 Years M = 79.1

n = 190 3 Years M = 82.1

n = 132 Messinger

Rosenquist et al. PNAS | January 13, 2015 | vol. 112 | no. 2 | 357

   Different infants at different times Pro: Efficient, large numbers of subjects Con: Differences do not necessarily reflect individual’s development  e.g. cohort

95 90 65 60 55 50 85 80 75 70 Different Individuals

Messinger

One Year Two Year Three Year

   Development is relatively stable on large time scales  Motor, physical, emotional, communicative But choppy on smaller scales Only longitudinal research can show individual development Messinger

    Many developmental trajectories Accurate depiction of trajectory depends on sampling rate of observations “Microgenetic method” – small time intervals to observe developmental process Overly large sampling intervals can distort shape of change Gangi

6 mos.. 17” Birth 13.75” 12 mos. 18” Messinger 24 mos. 19”

Messinger

Messinger

  Continuity (=absolute change)  Behavior level is continuous (discontinuous) across ages How does a behavior change in form and/or function over the course of development?   Stability  Rank of individual in group is stable How does a behavior change differently among individuals in the same group? (=relative change) Typical Trajectory: Cognitive Scores Decline 120 110 100 90 80 70 60 50 1 Year M = 93.5

n = 200 2 Years M = 79.1

n = 190 3 Years M = 82.1

n = 132 Messinger

Validity of Developmental Studies

 External validity =  Internal validity =  Methodological soundness of study allowing changes in DV to be attributed to the IV  Threats to internal validity = uncontrolled confounds ▪ Need to control for various methodological confounds through adequate sampling, random assignment (when possible), inclusion of control group etc.

Threats of particular concern in Developmental Studies (cont)

 History:  Maturation:  Testing:  Instrumentation:  Regression: ▪ Example of Regression * Selection effect

Threats of particular concern in Developmental Studies: Regression

 High anxious freshmen selected for intervention in first week of school; by mid year show significant decrease in anxiety Pretest 90 Intervention Posttest 70

 The process of quantifying abstract concepts such as: ▪ Intelligence ▪ Sociability ▪ Emotion Regulation  Developmental assessments often rely on indirect measures  i.e., habituation/dishabituation in infancy as index of processing

 Are we measuring what we think we’re measuring,  Do the variables measured the constructs mentioned in the research questions?

 There is no final answer ▪ Reunion behavior = Attachment?

▪ Smiling = Joy?

▪ Looking = Preference?

▪ Heart rate = Arousal?

Messinger

 Requires  Detailed operational definitions  Creation of sensitive instruments  Rules for scoring instrument to create summary scores

 Validity  Does measure provide intended information for intended population?

▪ Can vary with age and subgroup (e.g., ethnicity or SES)  Reliability  How consistent is children’s behavior?

▪ Tends to increases with age and diversity of sample

  Observed on-line or video-recorded Measured with  Trait rating - global judgement  Time sampling  Event sampling (frequency)  Event sampling (duration) Messinger

Messinger

  Heart rate & respiration (video)  avoidant infants, infants on visual cliff Electroencephalogram   Relative lateral activation during crying Actigraphy   Index of ADD?

Increasingly important supplement to behavioral measures

Messinger

 Missing Data  Most common reason for low power in studies of change over time  Options  Deletion  Substitution  Imputation

 The methodological literature favors maximum likelihood and multiple imputation   a strong theoretical foundation, less restrictive assumptions, and the potential for bias reduction and greater power. Benefits are especially important for developmental research where attrition is a pervasive problem Enders, Craig K.

Child Development Perspectives, Vol 7(1), Mar 2013, 27-31.

  Reliability  Consistency of measurement ▪ Inter-rater reliability of observations Bias  Systematic impact of unmeasured variables ▪ Blinding in drug studies ▪ Keeping observations independent Messinger



Analysis

 Approaches to Analyzing Change over Time ▪ Describing group level patterns of change over time ▪ Describing individual differences in patterns of change ▪ Processes underlying/modifying patterns of change ▪ Mediating and moderating variables