Transcript 4. Management science.

Leadership
José Onofre Montesa Andrés
Universidad Politécnica de Valencia
Escuela Superior de Informática
Aplicada
2003-2004
Can one person make a difference
in an organization's performance?
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What is leadership?
• The ability to influence a group toward
the achievement of a goal.
– Administration: Deals with complexity
• Pacification, Organization, Control.
– Leadership: Deals with change.
• Stablemen of a vision.
• Aliening people with that vision and impel them
to defeat obstacles.
• Administrator <> Leader
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What about the task?
• Badly, we are going in the wrong direction
(leader) (worry about effectiveness)
• Very well, our advance is 50 meters per hour
(Administrator) (worry about efficiency)
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Leadership basis
• People do what is asked for, power is
basic for leadership
• leadership…
– Owns to the leader (something of him)
– Owns to the people leaders (they give this
to the leader)
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Power
• Influence capacity.
• Sources of Power
– Position
• Legitimate
• Reward
• Coercive
– Individual
• Expert
• Referent
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Reward Power
– Compliance achieved based on the ability to
distribute rewards that others view as
valuables.
– Increase proportional with the number of
possible rewards that a person control.
– Can be increases in the salary or only
greeting from a supervisor.
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Coercive power.
• Power that is based on fear
• Depends on the perception that a
persons has over the capacity of an
other person to punish him.
• Some times we don’t perceive this
capacity and same problems arise.
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Legitimate power.
• The power a persons
receives as a result
of his or her position
in the formal
hierarchy.
– Shared values,
– Social structure, or
– A legitimated agent
authorization.
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Expert power
• Influence based o
special skills or
knowledge
• People needs his or her
skills or knowledge in
order to arrive to their
objectives.
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Referent Power
• Influence based on possession by an individual
of desirable resources or personal trails.
• If you admire a person, he or she has power
over you, because you want to please he or she.
• You want to be like this person
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Conclusions
• Power isn’t leadership
but is close correlates
and we need to
understand the
mechanism.
• Leadership increases as
power do.
• Reserve coercive and
legitimate power.
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Leadership theories
• Trait theories of
leadership
• Behavioral theories
• Contingency theories
• Charismatic
leadership theory
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Trait theories of leadership
• Theories that sought personality, social,
physical or intellectual traits that
differentiate leaders.
– Described as:
• Ambition and energy, Desire to lead, Honesty and
integrity, Self confidence, intelligence, Job
relevant knowledge.
– But:
•
•
•
•
Overlook the needs of followers.
relative importance of each trait.
Doesn’t separate cause from effect.
Ignore situational factors.
– We can select leaders.
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Behavioral theories
• Theories proposing that specific
behaviors differentiate leaders from
non leaders.
• We could train people to be leaders.
• Theories:
–
–
–
–
Ohio state university
University of Michigan Studies
The managerial Grid
Scandinavian Studies
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Ohio state university
• From 1000 dimensions to two categories:
– Initiating structure
• The extent to which a leader is likely to define and
structure his or her role and those of subordinates in
search for a goal attainment.
– Consideration
• The extent to which a leader is likely to have job
relationships characterized by mutual trust, respect to
subordinates’ ideas, and regard for their feelings.
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University of Michigan Studies
• Locate characteristics associated with
effectiveness .
– Employee-oriented leader
• One who emphasizes interpersonal relations.
– Production-oriented leader.
• One who emphasizes technical or task aspects of the job
• Employee oriented were associated with group
productivity and satisfaction.
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The managerial Grid
• Developed by Blake and Mouton.
• Proposes a nine-by-nine matrix outlining
eighty-one different leadership styles.
– Concern for people
• Good work clime, communication, people mater
– Concern for production.
• The work must be well done and on time.
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The managerial Grid
9
Concern
for
people
1,9
9,9
8
7
6
5
5,5
4
3
2
1
1,1
1
9,1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Concern for production
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The managerial Grid
–
–
–
–
(1,1) don’t concerned by people needier task.
(1,9) concerned for people (satisfaction)
(9,1) concerned for production (results)
(9,9) High concern for people and
production (space lab)
– (5,5) moderate concern for people and
production.
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Scandinavian Studies
• One who values experimentation, seeking
new ideas, and generating and
implementing change.
– Look at the innovation
• Products
• Process
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Contingency Theories
• Is appropriate de same
leader in any situation?
• Military, Artists Design
team,… peopleware,...
• Situation -> leader type
– A->style X
– B-> style Y
– …
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FIEDLER model
• Effective groups depend upon a proper match
between a leader’s style of interacting with
subordinates and the degree to which the
situation gives control and influence to the
leader.
• The LPC (least preferred co-worker)
– An instrument that purports to measure whether a
person is task or relationship oriented.
• Leadership style depends on the people
psychology. (difficult to change)
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FIEDLER model
• Procedure
1) Identify leadership style
• Remember the least enjoyed co-worker.
• Do you have good relations with him?
2) Defining the situation.
• Contingencies
– Leader  Member (relations)
– Task structure
– Position power
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FIEDLER Model ...
– 3) Matching leaders and situation
SITUATION
I
Reaction
Leader  Member
      

Task structure
      
      


Position Powe
II III IV
V
VI VII VIII
Task
oriented
Relationship
oriented
(low LPC)
(High LPC)
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Task
oriented
(low LPC)
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Hersey y Blanchard’s Theory
• Situational leadership.
• Focus on:
– followers
• Accept or reject the leader
– readiness
• People have the ability and willingness to
accomplish a specific task.
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Hersey y Blanchard’s Theory
High T;R
Supportive behavior
• Directive behavior
– Orientate, define and
work organization
– Give instructions,
control
• Supportive Behavior
– Appreciate the work
done, workers Selfesteem
– Deal at the same level,
accessible,..
T;R
T;R
Low
high
M4
Mature
T;
R
Directive behavior
High
Low
M3
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M2
Moderate
M1
Immature
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• Telling (high task – low relationship).
– The leader defines roles and tells people what, how, when, and
where to do various tasks. It emphasizes directive behavior.
• Selling (high task– high relationship).
– The leader provides both Directive behavior and supportive
behavior.
• Participating (low task– high relationship).
– The leader and follower share in decision making, with the
main role of the leader being facilitating and communicating.
• Delegating (low task– low relationship)
– The leader provides little direction or support.
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Path-Goal Theory
• leader’s job is
– assisting followers in attaining their goals and to
provide support
– ensure that goals are objectives of our
organization.
• leader’s behavior is acceptable to
subordinates if it is motivational
– Makes subordinate need satisfaction
– provides the coaching, guidance, support, rewards.
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Path-Goal Theory:
Four leadership behaviors.
• The directive leader
– lets subordinates know what is expected, schedules work, and
gives specific guidance as to how to accomplish tasks.
• The supportive leader
– Is friendly and shows concern for the needs of subordinates.
• The participative leader
– consults with subordinates before making a decision.
• The achievement-oriented leader
– sets goals and expects subordinates to perform at highest
level.
• The same leader can display any or all of these
behaviors depending on the situation.
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Path-Goal Theory:
contingency variables
• Moderate the leadership behavior
– Environment: outside the control of the
subordinate
• task structure, the formal authority system, and the work
group
– Personal characteristics of the subordinate
• locus of control, experience, and perceived ability.
• leader behavior will be ineffective when it is
redundant with sources of environmental
structure or incongruent with subordinate
characteristics.
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The path-goal theory
• Leader Behavior
•
•
•
•
– Environmental
contingency factors
» Task structure
» Formal authority
system
» Work group
Directive
Participative
Achievement oriented
Supportive
– Subordinate
outcomes
Performance
Satisfaction
contingency factors
» Locus of control
» Experience
» Perceived ability
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Path-Goal Theory:
some examples of hypotheses
• Directive greater satisfaction
– tasks ambiguous or stressful
• Supportive -> when structured tasks.
• Directive is redundant -> subordinates with ability or
experience.
• Clear and bureaucratic authority relationships ->
supportive.
• Directive -> when conflict within a work group.
• Subordinates with internal locus of control ->
participative style.
• Subordinates with external locus of control -> directive
style.
• Achievement-oriented -> when tasks are ambiguously
structured.
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Leader-Participation Model
• A leadership theory that provides a set
of rules to determine the form and
amount of participative decision making
in different situations.
• five leader behaviors in situation
– I (AI), Autocratic II (AII),
– Consultative I (CI), Consultative II (CII),
– and Group II (GII)
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Leader-Participation Model
• Autocratic I (AI).
– using what-ever facts you have at hand.
– solve the problem or make a decision
yourself
• Autocratic II (AII).
– obtain the necessary information from
subordinates and
– then decide on the solution to the problem
yourself.
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Leader-Participation Model
• Consultative I (CI).
– share the problem with subordinates one-on-one, getting
their ideas and suggestions.
– the final decision is yours alone.
• Consultative II (CII).
– share the problem with your subordinates as a group,
collectively
– obtain their ideas and suggestions.
– Then you make the decision that may or may not reflect your
subordinates’ influence.
• Group II (GII).
– share the problem with your subordinates as a group.
– Your goal is to help the group concur on a decision.
– Your ideas are not given any greater weight than those of
others.
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Leader-Participation Model
• RQ: Quality requirement:
– How important is the technical quality of this decision?
• CR: Commitment requirement:
–
How important is subordinate commitment to the decision?
• LI: Leader's information:
– Do you have sufficient information to make a high-quality decision?
• ST: Problem structure:
– Is the problem well structured?
• CP: Commitment probability:
– If you were to make the decision by yourself, is it reasonably certain
that your subordinate(s) would be committed to the decision?
• GC: Goal congruence:
– Do subordinates share the organizational goals to be attained in
solving this problem?
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Leader-Participation Model
•
CO: Subordinate conflict:
•
SI: Subordinate information:
•
TC: Time Constraint
•
GD: Geographical Dispersion
•
MT: Motivation—Time
•
MD: Motivation—Development
– Is conflict among subordinates over preferred solutions likely?
– Do subordinates have sufficient information to make a high-quality decision?
– Does a critically severe time constraint limit your ability to involve
subordinates?
– Are the costs involved in bringing together geographically dispersed
subordinates prohibitive?
– How important is it to you to minimize the time it takes to make the decision?
– How important is it to you to maximize the opportunities for subordinate
development?
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Leader-Participation Model
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Charismatic Leadership
• ¿Why people work a lot with same
leader and don’t do that with others?
–
–
–
–
Self-confidence
Vision
Ability to articulate the vision (Communication)
Strong convictions about the vision
(Perseverance)
– Behavior that is out of the ordinary
– Perceived as being a change agent
– Environment sensitivity
• Transformational leader
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Bibliography:
• Weihrich, H. “Management: Science,
Theory, and Practice” en Software
Engineering Project Management, 2ed.
IEEE, 1997.
• Mackenzie, R.A., “The Management
Process in 3-D” en Software Engineering
Project Management, 2ed. IEEE, 1997.
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