Transcript Art in the Age of Imperialism

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For most of art history, an artistic object like a
painting or sculpture was considered quite
different from a work of craftsmanship, such as a
piece of furniture or a decorative plate.
In the Age of Empire, paintings, sculpture,
murals, and mosaics were considered art, but the
Lidded Saltcellar would not have been.
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Art history is closely related to other disciplines
such as anthropology, history, and sociology.
In addition, art history sometimes overlaps with
the fields of aesthetics, or the philosophical
inquiry into the nature and expression of beauty;
and art criticism, or the explanation of current art
events to the general public via the press.
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In the past, art historians often limited their focus
to what was called “fine art,” which generally
included paintings, prints, drawings, sculpture,
and architecture, usually produced specifically
for appreciation by an audience who also
understood these objects as works of art.
Today we define art much more broadly, also
taking into consideration objects that in the past
were dismissed as “craft”: textiles, pottery, and
body art such as tattoos, for example.
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Art historians also consider objects that might
not be considered art by their intended audience,
including mass-produced posters and
advertisements and even the design of ordinary
household items like telephones, forks, and the
living room sofa.
Art historians acknowledge that the meaning of
a work of art can shift over time, and that an
artwork may be perceived differently by viewers
who approach it from different perspectives.
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Art historians acknowledge that the meaning of
a work of art can shift over time, and that an
artwork may be perceived differently by viewers
who approach it from different perspectives.
Differences such as social status, education,
physical access to a work of art, religious
background, race, and gender have an impact on
the construction of the meaning of a work of art.
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Art history is an academic discipline dedicated to the
reconstruction of the social, cultural, and economic
contexts in which an artwork was created.
The basic goal of this work is to arrive at an
understanding of art and its meaning in its historical
moment, taking into consideration the formal
qualities of a work of art, the function of a work of
art in its original context, the goals and intentions of
the artist and the patron of the work of art, the social
position and perspectives of the audience in the
work’s original time and place, and many other
related questions.
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A third type of scholar studies pure aesthetics,
beauty in the absence of context.
A professor of aesthetics would be concerned
primarily with formal analysis of a work.
An art critic would be most interested in
contextual analysis: figuring out what a work
means or was meant to mean, given when, by
whom, and how it was created.
An art historian combines these different types
of inquiry.
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Like all subjects, art has its own lingo.
It is hard to describe a work of art without the
right vocabulary, just as it would be hard to
comment on a baseball game without knowing
the words “strike” and “pitcher.”
By manipulating the elements of art, an artist
can manipulate his viewer, too.
The most beautiful colors, laid on confusedly, will not give as much pleasure as the
chalk outline of a portrait.” Aristotle (384-322 B.C), who was probably the world’s
first professor of aesthetics
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Art historians generally analyze works of art in
two ways that are distinct from one another, but
also interrelated.
These two modes of analysis are called formal
analysis and contextual analysis.
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Formal analysis focuses on the visual qualities of
the work of art itself.
A basic assumption of formal analysis is that the
artist makes decisions related to the visual
aspects of the artwork that can reveal to us
something about meaning.
From this point of view, aspects of meaning are
intrinsic to the work of art.
Terms associated with the formal qualities of
works of art are often called the “elements of
art.”
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Formal analysis requires excellent skills in
observation and description.
Beginning our study of an artwork with formal
analysis keeps the focus on the object itself,
which to the art historian is always primary .
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Contextual analysis involves looking outside of
the work of art in order to determine its
meaning.
This involves examining not only the context in
which the work was created, but also later
contexts in which the work was and continues to
be consumed.
Contextual analysis focuses on the cultural,
social, religious, and economic context in which
the work was produced.
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Art historians may examine issues of patronage,
viewer access to the work, the physical location
of the work in its original context, the cost of the
work of art, the subject matter in relation to
other artworks of the time period, and so on.
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Art history often emphasizes a chronological
development with the assumption that within one
cultural setting the work of one generation of artists
will have an impact on following generations.
Art historians often use comparative study.
Then, we can seek to relate these changes to
historical context.
Art history provides information and insights that
add background to the meaning and significance of
the works of art we study.
As we place these works of art in their cultural and
historical context, they are connected to the long
history of events that has led up to our present
culture.
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Art historians often begin their analysis with a
close examination of a work of art.
Direct examination of the work of art is ideal
because much is lost when we look at a
reproduction rather than an original work of art.
In the case of sculpture, it is often difficult to get
a proper sense of the scale and the threedimensional qualities of a piece from a
photograph.
We lose the texture and some of the rich colors
when we experience paintings in reproduction.
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It is quite common, though, for art historians to
settle for studying from reproductions due to
practical constraints.
In some cases, works of art might be damaged or
even lost over time, and so art historians rely on
earlier descriptions to aid in their formal and
contextual analysis.
In addition to examining the work of art in question,
art historians will also seek to understand any
associated studies (sketches, preparatory models,
etc.) and other works by the artist and his or her
contemporaries
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Art historians also use many written sources in
the quest for contextual information about a
work of art.
Often these texts are stored in archives or
libraries.
Archival sources may include items such as
letters between the artist and patron, or other
documents pertaining to the commission, and
art criticism produced at the time the work of art
was made.
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An art historian might also search for written
documentation about the materials used to
produce the work of art, such as their cost and
source, and about the function of the artwork—
how a particular sculpture was used in ritual
practice, for example.
Art historians also seek to situate the work in the
context of the literature, music, theater, and
history of the time period.
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Art historians may also rely on interviews with
artists and consumers of works of art.
This is especially the case in cultures that rely
more on oral history than on written documents.
Guided by the field of anthropology, some art
historians also use methods such as participant
observation to understand the context of a work
of art.
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As an academic discipline, art history arose in the
mid-eighteenth century.
The ancient Roman historian Pliny the Elder (23–79
c.e.) sought to analyze historical and contemporary
art in his text Natural History.
During the Renaissance, the author and artist
Giorgio Vasari (1511–74) gathered the biographies of
great Italian artists, past and present, in The Lives of
the Artists.Vasari’s text provides us with insights into
the changing roles of artists in society during this
period and the developing concept of artistic genius.
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Modern art history was strongly influenced by
eighteenth-century Enlightenment philosophy.
Johann Joachim Winckelmann (1717–68) was a
German scholar who shifted away from Vasari’s
biographical emphasis to a rigorous study of stylistic
development as related to historical context.
Through the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, art
historians continued to develop approaches that
placed increasing emphasis on an understanding of
the interrelationship between the formal qualities of
a work of art and its context.
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Much of what we know of the earliest life on
earth has been revealed through a study of the
objects or artifacts that remain from early
cultures.In many cases, the objects that remain
are those made of enduring materials such as
stone, metal, or fired clay, as opposed to those
made of perishable materials like wood or fibers.
Environmental conditions also have a major
impact on preservation.
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The hot dry climate of the desert in Egypt, for
example, enabled the preservation of even
delicate materials like papyrus, and the sealed
atmosphere of a cave or tomb likewise helped to
preserve the objects contained within them for
our wonder and enjoyment centuries later.
In contrast, the humid climate of West Africa
means that objects made of perishable materials
have had little chance of survival over the course
of decades, not to mention centuries.
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This is one reason that the history of art as a
discipline has placed greater emphasis on
Western cultures, often neglecting to focus on
developments in Nonwestern cultures.
It is important to recognize that the civilizations
that are most often studied in art history courses
are not necessarily those where the most or the
best art was made.
Rather, they are the civilizations whose art has
been preserved and whose art has been
discovered.
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The oldest works of art
that we will consider are
the cave paintings found
in Chauvet Cave in
southeastern France.
These paintings,
discovered in 1994, date
from c.30,000 b.c.e. and
thus are placed in the Old
Stone Age (Upper
Paleolithic Period).
Except for a minimal use of
yellow, the paintings and
engravings in Chauvet Cave
were created using red ochre
and black charcoal and depict
animals such as horses,
rhinoceros, lions, buffalos, and
mammoths.
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Later cave paintings (c.15,000–10,000 b.c.e.) have also
been discovered in other parts of France and in Spain,
with Lascaux and Altamira being the most famous.
The art in these caves takes the form of large colored
drawings of animals such as horses, bears, lions, bison,
and mammoths, and the paintings include several
outlines of human hands.
The earliest scholarship on these drawings considered
them to be the spontaneous scribbling of primitive
cavemen.
However, with further study, it became apparent that
the various groups of drawings had been created by
skilled artists working within an established tradition.
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However, with further study, it became apparent
that the various groups of drawings had been
created by skilled artists working within an
established tradition.
The artists used pigments of red and yellow
ochre to add color to the elegant black outlines
they had created using charcoal.
Though we cannot be sure of their original
function, it is possible that these works were
created as a part of hunting ceremonies or other
ritual behaviors.
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Another well-known group of artworks from the Old
Stone Age are small stone female figures that have
exaggerated bellies, breasts, and pubic areas.
The best known of these figures is the Venus (or
Woman) of Willendorf (c.28,000–25,000 b.c.e.), which
is about four and one-eighth inches high.In contrast to
the exaggerated female features of the body, the
facial features of the statue are undefined, the arms
are barely visible, and the feet are missing.
Scholars contend that these statues were fertility
figures although it is not known precisely how they
were used.
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During the Middle Stone Age (Mesolithic Period)
the climate warmed, and a culture developed
that produced art similar in some ways to the
cave paintings of the Paleolithic Period.
With the warming of temperatures during this
era, cave dwellers moved out of their caves and
began using rock shelters, as evidenced by the
various paintings that have been discovered on
such locations in eastern Spain.
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The rock shelter paintings, like the cave paintings
that preceded them, demonstrate the skill of their
creators in the depiction of animal figures.
What sets the rock shelter paintings apart from the
cave paintings is their depiction of the human figure.
Except for one human figure found in the paintings
at Lascaux, cave paintings did not include any
human beings.
The rock shelter paintings, however, portray human
beings, both alone and in groups, and there seems to
be an emphasis on scenes in which human beings
dominate animals.
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The rock shelter
paintings, however,
portray human beings,
both alone and in
groups, and there
seems to be an
emphasis on scenes in
which human beings
dominate animals
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The art forms most often linked with the New Stone
Age (Neolithic Period) are rings or rows of roughhewn stones located in Western Europe.
These formations have been dated as early as 4000
b.c.e.
The stones used were often exceedingly large—as
much as seventeen feet in height and fifty tons in
weight.
Indeed, the sheer size of these works led historians
to call the stones megaliths, meaning “great
stones,” and the culture that created these works is
often termed “megalithic.”
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The most well known of these rock arrangements is the one
found at Stonehenge on Salisbury Plain in Wiltshire, England.
Stonehenge is believed to have been built in many phases
around 2100 b.c.e. Stonehenge features concentric rings made
with sarsen (a form of sandstone) stones and smaller
“bluestones”—rocks indigenous to the region.
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The outermost ring is comprised of huge sarsen
stones in post and lintel construction—two upright
pieces topped with a crosspiece, or lintel.
The next ring is composed of bluestones, which
encircle a horseshoe-shaped row of five linteltopped sarsen stones—these are the largest ones
used at Stonehenge, with some weighing as much as
fifty tons.
Outside the formation, to the northeast, is the
vertically placed “heel-stone.”
If one stands in the center of the rings and looks
outward, this “heel-stone” marks the point at which
the sun rises on the midsummer solstice.
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Usually, art thrives in highly organized cultures with
stable population centers—usually great cities—that
house ruling classes who in turn support the work of
artists.
Also, if a civilization has a tradition of protecting its
art in locations that are largely inaccessible, it is
more likely that the works from that culture will
survive to a point where they are included in a study
of art history.
Many extant artifacts have come from burial
chambers, caves, and tombs, where they have been
protected by being naturally concealed.
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The civilizations that arose in Mesopotamia in the
valley between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers
developed writing and arts in parallel with Egypt
Unfortunately, the Mesopotamian civilizations
formed in a valley that lacked the natural barriers of
deserts and mountains that protected Egypt.T
his left them vulnerable to invasion, and hence, the
history of this ancient region is one of successive
conquest and destruction.
Moreover, the use of more perishable materials by
Mesopotamian civilizations has left us with fewer
examples of their arts
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From around 4000 b.c.e., the Sumerians in
Mesopotamia created impressive sculptures and
buildings.
Religion was a central aspect of Sumerian life,
and the Sumerians built massive temples at the
centers of their cities.
Less complex platform structures evolved over
time into the stepped pyramids called ziggurats.
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Around 2334 b.c.e., the cities of Sumer came
under the rule of Sargon of Akkad.
Although the Akkadians spoke a different
language from the Sumerians, they assimilated
Sumerian culture.
With the Akkadian dynasty, loyalty to the citystate was supplanted by loyalty to the king, and
consequently the art of this period tends to
reflect an emphasis on the monarchy, with
Akkadian rulers depicted in freestanding and
relief sculptures.
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Around 2150 b.c.e., Akkadian rule came to an end as
the Guti, barbarous mountaineers, invaded and took
control.
About fifty years later, however, the city of Sumer
were able to reassert control, and a Neo-Sumerian
ruler was established in the King of Ur.
Perhaps the greatest known works of this era were
the ziggurats that were built at the city centers.
The ziggurats functioned primarily as temples but
also served as administrative and economic centers.
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The next important civilization in
Mesopotamia was that of the Babylonians.
For centuries Mesopotamia had witnessed the
coexistence of several independent citystates, but around 1792 b.c.e., Hammurabi,
king of the city-state of Babylonia, was able to
centralize power.
Hammurabi left an enduring legacy in that he
codified Babylonian law—the Code of
Hammurabi is the oldest legal code known in
its entirety.
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The best-known artwork
from this period, preserved
in the Louvre Museum, is
related to this code of law; it
is a stone stele onto which
Hammurabi’s code is carved
with a sculpture in high relief
at the top that depicts
Hammurabi receiving
inspiration for his code of law
from the sun-god, Shamash.
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Throughout the seventh century b.c.e., the Assyrian hold
on power weakened, and from c.612–538 b.c.e.,
Babylonia once again became the dominant force in the
region.
It was during this Neo-Babylonian period that the
famous hanging gardens of Babylon were constructed.
Another important construction at this time was the
gateway to the great ziggurat of the temple of Bel,
called the Ishtar Gate, which is considered one of the
greatest works of architecture in which figures—in this
case animal figures—are superimposed on a walled
surface.
Another important construction at this
time was the gateway to the great ziggurat
of the temple of Bel, called the Ishtar Gate,
which is considered one of the greatest
works of architecture in which figures—in
this case animal figures—are superimposed
on a walled surface.
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The Persian Empire (c.538 b.c.e.–330 b.c.e.)
flourished in what is present-day Iran.
The Persians were notable for their impressive
architectural achievements, the most important of
which was the palace at Persepolis, which was
constructed of stone, brick, and wood and reflects
the influence of Egyptian architecture.
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While the Sumerian, Akkadian, and Babylonian
cultures grew in southern Mesopotamia, the
Assyrians dominated in the north.
From about 900 b.c.e. to around 600 b.c.e. the
Assyrians were the most powerful civilization in
the Near East.
Among the most notable of Assyrian artworks
are relief carvings, which often depict battles,
sieges, hunts, and other important events
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When art historians look at a work, they usually take
two perspectives: their own, as modern viewers, and
the viewpoint people would have had when the work
was created.
This double vision is crucial to art history.
Unlike art criticism, which focuses on explaining
works of art, art history is more like detective work.
An art historian cares as much about the artist or
culture that produced a work as he does about what
the work represents.
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Line
Shape
Form
Space
an Image:
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Line is the most basic element of art. Drag a stick
through the dirt, and you’ve created line.
Anything from a quick sketch done with a
pencil10 to a detailed tattoo relies on line.
Architecture, too, depends on lines to convey
height and grandeur.
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Straight lines convey harmony and balance, but
they look inorganic.
Take a look at yourself in the mirror—you won’t
see many straight lines. You will see a lot of
curves, from your hairline to the balls of your feet.
Because they dominate the natural world, curved
lines tend to look organic to human eyes.
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Examine Three Musicians (1921) by Pablo Picasso
(1881-1973). The human figures are created out
of mostly straight lines. The difference between
what we expect when we look at people (curves)
and what we see here (straight lines) can be
jarring. The contrast makes the viewer stop and
look a little longer.
We might respond with similar unease to a
building crafted entirely from curves—such as
Frank Gehry’s Dancing House.
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Lines can be thin or thick, long or short, straight
or wavy—and how they look affects how we
react to them.
A thin, delicate line might imply frailty, a thick
line strength, a wavy line movement.
The Greek philosopher Aristotle argued line was
the most important element of art because it is
the most informative.
Anyone can recognize a stick-figure drawing of a
man, flower, or tree, and people appreciate that
to which they can easily relate.
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The second most basic element is shape. A
shape is always two dimensional, meaning it
exists only on a flat plane.
All polygons are shapes: triangles, squares,
pentagons, and so on. A circle is also a shape, as
is any area defined by outside lines.
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Form is shape made three-dimensional.
Whereas a square is a shape, a cube is a form.
A sculpture is the clearest application of form in
art, but artists who work in two dimensions, like
comic book illustrators, can create the illusion of
form by using lines and shapes.
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Both shapes and forms occupy space.
On a two-dimensional plane, the space occupied
by an object or figure is positive space, and the
space around it is negative space.
The musicians in Picasso’s painting create
positive space; the brown background is negative
space.
Negative space can also be created in smaller
areas within the larger positive space of an
object. If you drew a donut, the space inside it
would be negative space.
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When carving is used to turn a two-dimensional
surface into a three-dimensional form, as in the
carvings around the doorways of old buildings, it
is said to be in high relief or low (also called bas)
relief, depending on how much the carving sticks
out from or reaches into the surface.
None of these terms for space apply to
freestanding sculptures, which have their own
space definition: fully in the round.
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Color is an element of art. It is not as crucial as
line for creating a recognizable image, but can
convey great meaning.
All colors except white and black are called hues.
Black and white are neutrals. When black and
white are mixed, gray results.
When black is added to a hue, the hue grows
darker, and it is said to have a lower value.
Mixing white into a hue increases its value,
making it lighter.
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All surfaces absorb some wavelengths of light
and reflect others; our brains perceive the
reflected wavelengths as color.
The three primary colors, red, blue, and yellow,
are so called because the receptors in our eyes
are set up for them.
We perceive other colors as mixes of red, blue,
and yellow.
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Green (a mix of blue and yellow), orange (a mix
of red and yellow), and violet or purple (a mix of
blue and red) are the three secondary colors.
Secondary colors combine with primary colors to
form tertiary colors.
The color wheel shows the full spectrum of
primary, secondary, and tertiary colors; the
points of the triangle are positioned on three of
the six tertiary colors.
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Colors have great significance to people.
For example, all around the world, green is associated
with nature, red with danger, and blue with water.
Colors also have different meanings in different cultures,
which is very important to contextual analysis.
In Western art, red, orange and yellow are considered
warm colors, used to represent cheerful ideas, while
green, blue, and purple are cool colors.
Warm colors tend to jump out at the viewer, while cooler
colors fade into the background.
Western artists of the nineteenth century were aware of
these properties of color, and used them purposefully to
create contrast.
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Many works of art have a focal point, a place
where the viewer’s eye naturally drifts. Look at
Vincent van Gogh’s The Starry Night (1889).
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Your eyes should end up focused on the moon. This is partly
due to color: the warmer color of the moon draws the eye,
and the swirls of yellow on the blue background lead to it.
Lines, real and implied, also draw the eye toward the moon.
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Color is perceived differently in different light.
The human eye evolved for natural sunlight;
artificial light is a relatively new development. If
you look at an object by daylight, you’ll see its
local color, or natural hue.
In non-natural light, we see an object’s optical
color, the combination of the object’s actual
color and the action of the light source.
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Consider how set designers use different colors
to set the mood in different film and theater
scenes.
The most extreme effect results from the use of
arbitrary color, as in Three Musicians.
People’s skin comes in a marvelous range of
shades, but blue isn’t one of them.
Artists use arbitrary color for many reasons, but
the usual intent is to subvert viewer
expectations.
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Like color, texture isn’t necessary to depict a
recognizable subject.
Outside of art, texture refers to how something
feels.
Within art, texture refers both to how something
feels and to how it looks like it might feel.
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Sculptures have texture based on the materials
used to create them.
Stone has a texture, as do wood, bronze, or any
other material an artist might use.
Carvings made on these surfaces add additional
texture.
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Two-dimensional art, such as a painting, can still
have three dimensional texture.
Artists can use thick brushstrokes or even literally
stick things on their canvases to help create
Texture.
If you touched a painting created with these
techniques, you’d feel the same texture you see.
Texture can also be used to create an illusion of a third dimension in
two-dimensional artworks.
In Francisco de Zurbarán’s Still Life with Pottery Jars (1636), the
metal objects appear shiny and smooth, as they would in real life.
The pottery jars all have textures that look as if they would feel
ridged if touched. Zurbarán achieved this by contrasting the
reflective appearance of the ridges and The darkness of the
shadows.
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Line, shape, form, and space create a
recognizable image.
Color and texture make images more
sophisticated and create more recognizable and
realistic objects.
Perspective, a technique artists use to create
illusions of depth, distance, and proportion, adds
even more complexity to two-dimensional art.
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An object seen close-up will appear larger than
the same object in the distance.
A car appears smaller as it drives off.
If you hold your fingers in front of an eye, a
faraway face will appear no larger than the space
between your fingertips.
Once an object is far enough, it vanishes to the
naked eye. The point at which it disappears is its
vanishing point.
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When drawing or painting objects both near and far,
linear perspective is used to create an illusion of
distance. An artist sketches a vanishing point, and then
draws the lines in the artwork narrowing toward it.
When a work has multiple vanishing points, as a painting of two
roads might, the artist first places all of the vanishing points in
relation to one another.
•When painting outdoor scenes, artists
often make use of aerial perspective.
Even on a clear day, the atmosphere
contains water vapor and dust. These
particles make distant objects appear
fuzzy and fainter.
•To depict this phenomenon, an artist
blurs and recolors distant objects—
emulating the effects of looking at
them through a long stretch of air.
•Thus, in Caspar David Friedrich’s
Wanderer Above the Sea of Fog (1818),
not only are the rocky crags in the
distance smaller on the canvas than
the nearer ones, they’re painted with
less detail and lighter colors.
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Artists use other perspective techniques,
including distance and proportion, to add depth.
Overlapping objects create the illusion that one
is in front of the other.
An object at the bottom of an image appears
nearer, while one at the top appears further
away, even when both take up equal space.
Larger, detailed objects appear closer, and
smaller, fuzzier objects more distant.
Most artists combine all these techniques,
particularly when painting landscapes and other
large-scale scenes.
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a. context
b. art history
c. anthropology
d. aesthetics
e. formal qualities
f. Intention
g. art criticism
h. sociology
i. patronage
j. function
_____ 1. writing on current art
_____ 2. visual characteristics of a work of art such as line, color, form, and texture
_____ 3. academic discipline that studies human behavior and culture
_____ 4. the social, cultural and economic conditions in which a work of art is made
_____ 5. academic discipline that studies society and its institutions
_____ 6. term referring to an artist’s goal in making an artwork
_____ 7. the purpose of a work of art
_____ 8. philosophical discipline that asks the question, “What is beauty?”
_____ 9. the purchase of art by wealthy collectors
_____ 10. discipline that studies the meaning of art in its own context
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Formal Analysis
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1. observes and describes visual qualities of the work
2. does not take into account any particular viewer’s biases,
limitations, or point of references
3. could explain how Pope Julius II understood Michelangelo’s
Sistine Chapel ceiling
4. used to compare and contrast artistic styles
5. studies properties intrinsic to the work of art
6. includes consideration of the original location of the work
7. looks at the cultural, social, economic, and religious context
surrounding the work of art
8. examines financial structures of art production such as
patronage
9. how the style of a work of art is determined
10. evaluates the reception of the work of art in its own time and
in later eras
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Contextual Analysis
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1. Art history has traditionally focused on objects defined
as art in their own historical context.
2. The fine arts include painting, sculpture, architecture,
and graphic design.
3. Every work of art has a definitive meaning.
4. Objects with everyday functions, such as textiles,
baskets, and pottery, were not included in the history of
art until recently.
5. Contemporary art historians are reinforcing the
traditional distinction between fine art and craft.
6. Items of mass culture, such as movie posters and
advertisements, belong to the history of art.
7. Industrial design is outside the realm of art history.
8. Women’s studies has changed the way we look at the
history of art.
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1. Slides and photographs of paintings do not
capture their unique ______ or ______.
2. Art __________from the time period reveals how
contemporary viewers interpreted works of art.
3. Reproductions of ______fail to convey their
________in relation to the human body.
4. Archival documents such as ____ or contracts
pertaining to _______ provide insight into the
personal and artistic life of the artist.
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5. Art historians prefer _______ observation of an
artwork compared to looking at ______.
6. ______________with artists are a direct testimony
of the artist’s intentions and goals.
7. Art historians learn about an artist’s process by
looking at ____________and __________.
8. The __________history of a work of art tells
historians how it has been received by viewers
throughout time.
9. Observer __________is a method used by cultural
anthropologists who study the _______ functions of
art.